tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5965034096929912282024-02-20T08:19:15.794-08:00bewalBEWAL IS A VILLAGE IN MAHENDER GARH . STATE HARYANA AND COUNTRY INDIA.
Bewal is very great as it is my home town.
Sunil yadavSunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.comBlogger12125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-3020039420934760462013-06-14T21:24:00.000-07:002013-06-14T21:24:10.429-07:00What is UGC ---all information of how to become professor<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span dir="auto">University Grants Commission (India)</span></h1>
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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<tr><th class="fn org" colspan="2" style="background-image: none; font-size: 14px; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;">University Grants Commission</th></tr>
<tr class=""><td class="" colspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:UGC_India_Logo.png" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" height="217" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4e/UGC_India_Logo.png/200px-UGC_India_Logo.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4e/UGC_India_Logo.png/300px-UGC_India_Logo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4e/UGC_India_Logo.png 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Abbreviation</th><td class="nickname" style="vertical-align: top;">UGC</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Motto</th><td class="note" style="vertical-align: top;"><b>Gyan-Vigyan Vimukte</b><i>(Knowledge Liberates)</i></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Formation</th><td class="note" style="vertical-align: top;">December 28, 1953</td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Headquarters</th><td class="" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Location</th><td class="label" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="India">India</a></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Chairman</th><td class="" style="vertical-align: top;">Prof. <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ved_Prakash&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Ved Prakash (page does not exist)">Ved Prakash</a></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Affiliations</th><td class="" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Higher_Education_(India)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Department of Higher Education (India)">Department of Higher Education</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Human_Resource_Development_(India)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)">Ministry of Human Resource Development</a></td></tr>
<tr class=""><th scope="row" style="vertical-align: top;">Website</th><td class="url" style="vertical-align: top;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.ugc.ac.in/" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">www.ugc.ac.in</a></td></tr>
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The <b>University Grants Commission</b> (<b>UGC</b>) of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="India">India</a> is a statutory organisation set up by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Government of India">Union government</a> in 1956, charged with coordination, determination and maintenance of standards of university education. It provides recognition to universities in India, and disburses funds to such recognized <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_education_in_India" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of institutions of higher education in India">universities</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="College">colleges</a>. Prof. Ved Prakash, a noted academician and education administrator, is the incumbent Chairman of UGC, India.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> Its headquarters are in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>, and six regional centres in Pune, Bhopal, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Guwahati and Bangalore.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#cite_note-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup></div>
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Contents</h2>
<span class="toctoggle" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#" id="togglelink" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#History" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#UGC.27s_Mandate" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">UGC's Mandate</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#Professional_councils" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Professional councils</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#Plans_for_closing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Plans for closing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#References" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)#External_links" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span> <span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_Grants_Commission_(India)&action=edit&section=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span></h2>
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UGC was recommended in 1945 and formed in 1946 to oversee the work of the three Central Universities of Aligarh, Banaras and, Delhi. In 1947, the Committee was entrusted with the responsibility of dealing with all the then existing Universities. After independence, the University Education Commission was set up in 1948 under the Chairmanship of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">S. Radhakrishnan</a> and it recommended that the UGC be reconstituted on the general model of the University Grants Commission of the United Kingdom.</div>
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UGC was formally inaugurated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abul_Kalam_Azad" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Abul Kalam Azad">Abul Kalam Azad</a>, the Minister of Education, Natural Resources and Scientific Research on 28 December 1953.</div>
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The UGC was however, formally established in November 1956, by an Act of Parliament as a statutory body of the Government of India. In order to ensure effective region-wise coverage throughout the country, the UGC has decentralised its operations by setting up six regional centres at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pune">Pune</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad,_India" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hyderabad, India">Hyderabad</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kolkata">Kolkata</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bhopal">Bhopal</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guwahati" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Guwahati">Guwahati</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bangalore">Bangalore</a>. The head office of the UGC is located at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahadur_Shah_Zafar_Marg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg">Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg</a> in New Delhi, with two additional bureaus operating from 35, Feroze Shah Road and the South Campus of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Delhi" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University of Delhi">University of Delhi</a> as well.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="UGC.27s_Mandate">UGC's Mandate</span> <span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_Grants_Commission_(India)&action=edit&section=2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: UGC's Mandate">edit</a>]</span></h2>
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The UGC has the unique distinction of being the only grant-giving agency in the country which has been vested with two responsibilities: that of providing funds and that of coordination, determination and maintenance of standards in institutions of higher education.</div>
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The UGC's mandate includes:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Promoting and coordinating university education.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Determining and maintaining standards of teaching, examination and research in universities.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Framing regulations on minimum standards of education.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Monitoring developments in the field of collegiate and university education; disbursing grants to the universities and colleges.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Serving as a vital link between the Union and state governments and institutions of higher learning.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Advising the Central and State governments on the measures necessary for improvement of university education.</li>
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Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-65924952275666843362013-06-14T21:22:00.002-07:002013-06-14T21:22:23.964-07:00Gate 2014 format <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<b><i>About GATE 2014:</i></b><br />
The Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and seven Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs at Bombay,<br />
Delhi, Guwahati, Kanpur, Kharagpur, Madras and Roorkee) jointly administer the conduct of<br />
GATE (Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering) that serves as a means for admissions to<br />
graduate programmes in various engineering and science disciplines in the country. The results<br />
of GATE are also used by several Public Sector Undertakings to short list the candidates for<br />
their recruitment. The operations related to GATE in each of the 8 zones are managed by a<br />
zonal GATE Office at an IIT or IISc. The Organizing Institute (OI) is responsible for the end-toend process and coordination amongst the administering institutes. The Organizing Institute for<br />
GATE 2014 is IIT Kharagpur. For GATE 2014, the examinations for all the papers will be<br />
conducted in computer based Online Examination mode in multiple sessions spread over the<br />
period from 1st February 2014 to 9<br />
th March 2014. In the computer based Online Examination,<br />
the candidates will be required to answer the questions that appear on a computer connected to<br />
a server on a Local Area Network (LAN). Answers would be recorded at a server that also<br />
keeps track of the time for the examination. We hereby seek a Company Partner (CP) to<br />
provide the technology and the operational solution for the conduct of online examination for<br />
GATE 2014.</div>
Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-12224680191388226482013-06-14T21:20:00.003-07:002013-06-14T21:20:27.015-07:00UGC Net exam <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span dir="auto">National Eligibility Test</span></h1>
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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The <b>National Eligibility Test</b> (NET) is the national level entrance examination in India for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postgraduate" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Postgraduate">postgraduate</a> candidates who wish to qualify for admission in PhD research and/or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University">university</a> level teaching jobs in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="India">India</a>. For the humanities and art discipline it is administered by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University Grants Commission (India)">University Grants Commission</a> (referred to as "UGC NET"), while for the science and engineering discipline it is jointly conducted by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Scientific_and_Industrial_Research" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Council of Scientific and Industrial Research">Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)</a> and University Grants Commission ("CSIR-UGC" NET).</div>
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Contents</h2>
<span class="toctoggle" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#" id="togglelink" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#Controversies" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Controversies</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#Social_Media_Postings_about_National_Eligibility_Test" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Social Media Postings about National Eligibility Test</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#References" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#External_links" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Controversies">Controversies</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Eligibility_Test&action=edit&section=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Controversies">edit</a>]</span></h2>
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While a section of academicians advocated the abolition of the National Eligibility Test, the All India Federation of University and College Teachers’ Organisation (AIFUCTO) has strongly opposed attempts to abolish the National Eligibility Test (NET). The organization advocated that the test improves the standard of teaching in the country and instead of abolishing it all together the government must revisit some of its provisions that are making it flawed and unimplementable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup></div>
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Image depicting the eligibility criteria for June 2012 National Eligibility Test (NET) - a criteria which the UGC itself set aside in releasing the supplementary list which was largely non-criteria based</div>
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National Eligibility Test (NET) of June 2012 was the most controversial examination because its result was published on September 18, 2012. After the publication of the results, the Commission allegedly altered the Test’s qualification norms by mandating that candidates in the general category score an aggregate of 65 per cent for all three of the NET’s papers to become eligible for lectureship. The corresponding figure for the OBC category is 60 per cent and that of the SC/ST category is 55 per cent.According to the appearing students, in the original notification of the UGC it was specified that candidates in the general category should score at least 40 per cent for papers one and two and 50 per cent for paper three to be eligible for consideration for the final preparation of the result.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#cite_note-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup></div>
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This image highlights the anamolies of UGC NET Result of June 2012 where candidates getting less than 50% passed the test. UGC set an aggregate pass criteria General -65%, OBC - 60% and SC/ST - 55%.</div>
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In the light of the student protests and representations, the UGC released a supplementary list on November 12, 2012, which although qualified a few more candidates, but it did not specify any criteria for the revised list.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> Added to this was the fact that there were anomalies in the results declared where candidates securing less than 50 percent aggregate were declared as qualified whereas many general candidates with more 60 percent remained unqualified.</div>
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More than 7000 candidates approached the Kerala High Court against the University Grants Commission (UGC). The Kerala High court declared as illegal the new norms fixed by UGC for the National Eligibility Test (NET) for college and university lectureship. The court held that fixing of higher aggregate marks for three categories (General, OBC and SC/ST), that too just before the announcements of results, cannot be justified as the same was "not supportable by law". <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#cite_note-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup></div>
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In the light of this judgement, the University Grants Commission added the specific note "NOTIFICATION REGARDING PROCEDURE AND CRITERIA FOR DECLARATION OF RESULT OF UGC NET TO BE HELD ON 30TH DECEMBER, 2012 " on its website just two days before the examination.It also listed stepwise clearance criteria for candidates of different categories and subjects according to the competitive cutoffs fixed by the University Grants Commission, with an aim to clear top 15 percent candidates only. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Eligibility_Test#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Social_Media_Postings_about_National_Eligibility_Test">Social Media Postings about National Eligibility Test</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Eligibility_Test&action=edit&section=2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Social Media Postings about National Eligibility Test">edit</a>]</span></h2>
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Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-57203093789361812892013-06-14T21:18:00.001-07:002013-06-14T21:18:33.189-07:00Most 500 powerful computers <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span dir="auto">TOP500 most powerful computers</span></h1>
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Exponential growth of supercomputers performance, based on data from top500.org site. The <i>y</i>-axis shows performance in GFLOPS. The red line denotes the fastest supercomputer in the world at the time. The yellow line denotes supercomputer no. 500 on TOP500 list. The dark blue line denotes the total combined performance of supercomputers on TOP500 list.</div>
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The <b>TOP500</b> project ranks and details the 500 most powerful (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Distributed computing">non-distributed</a>) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer">computer</a> systems in the world. The project was started in 1993 and publishes an updated list of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a> twice a year. The first of these updates always coincides with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Supercomputing_Conference" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Supercomputing Conference">International Supercomputing Conference</a> in June, and the second one is presented in November at the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputing_Conference" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Supercomputing Conference">ACM/IEEE Supercomputing Conference</a>. The project aims to provide a reliable basis for tracking and detecting trends in high-performance computing and bases rankings on HPL,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> a portable implementation of the High-Performance <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LINPACK" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="LINPACK">LINPACK</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benchmark_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Benchmark (computing)">benchmark</a> written in Fortran for distributed-memory computers.</div>
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The TOP500 list is compiled by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Meuer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hans Meuer">Hans Meuer</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Mannheim" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University of Mannheim">University of Mannheim</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Germany">Germany</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Dongarra" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jack Dongarra">Jack Dongarra</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tennessee" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University of Tennessee">University of Tennessee</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knoxville,_Tennessee" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Knoxville, Tennessee">Knoxville</a>, and Erich Strohmaier and Horst Simon of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NERSC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="NERSC">NERSC</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Berkeley_National_Laboratory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory">Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory</a>.</div>
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Contents</h2>
<span class="toctoggle" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#" id="togglelink" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#History" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#Top_10_ranking" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Top 10 ranking</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#Other_rankings" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Other rankings</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#Systems_ranked_.231_since_1993" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Systems ranked #1 since 1993</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#Number_of_systems" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Number of systems</span></a></li>
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<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#Large_machines_not_on_the_list" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Large machines not on the list</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#See_also" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#References" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#External_links" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TOP500&action=edit&section=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span></h2>
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In the early 1990s, a new definition of supercomputer was needed to produce meaningful statistics. After experimenting with metrics based on processor count in 1992, the idea was born at the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Mannheim" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University of Mannheim">University of Mannheim</a> to use a detailed listing of installed systems as the basis. Early 1993 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Dongarra" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jack Dongarra">Jack Dongarra</a> was persuaded to join the project with his Linpack benchmark. A first test version was produced in May 1993, partially based on data available on the Internet, including the following sources:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#cite_note-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">"<a class="external text" href="http://www.hoise.com/primeur/PL/96/pl-top500/ES-PL-11-96-4.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: none;">List of the World's Most Powerful Computing Sites</a>" maintained by Gunter Ahrendt</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Kahaner&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="David Kahaner (page does not exist)">David Kahaner</a>, who had an immense amount of data.</li>
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The information from those sources was used for the first two lists. Since June 1993, the TOP500 is produced bi-annually based on site and vendor submissions only.</div>
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Since 1993, performance of the #1 ranked position has steadily grown in agreement with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moore%27s_law" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a>, doubling roughly every 14 months. As of November 2012, the fastest system, the <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(supercomputer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Titan (supercomputer)">Titan</a></i> with Rpeak<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#cite_note-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup> of 27.1125 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pflops" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pflops">PFlop/s</a>, is over 206,965 times faster than the fastest system in November 1993, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connection_Machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Connection Machine">Connection Machine</a> CM-5/1024 (1024 cores) with Rpeak of 131.0 <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gflops" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gflops">GFlop/s</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Top_10_ranking">Top 10 ranking</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TOP500&action=edit&section=2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Top 10 ranking">edit</a>]</span></h2>
<table class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-size: 13px; margin: 1em 0px; width: 1123px;"><caption style="font-weight: bold;">The following table gives the Top 10 positions of the 40th TOP500 List released on November 12, 2012.</caption><thead>
<tr><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending">Rank</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="50">Rmax<br />Rpeak<br /><sup style="line-height: 1em;">(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="FLOPS">Pflops</a>)</sup></th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending">Name</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending">Computer design<br />Processor type, interconnect</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending" width="40">Vendor</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending">Site<br />Country, year</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em; text-align: center;" title="Sort ascending">Operating system</th></tr>
</thead><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">1</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">17.590<br />27.113</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(supercomputer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Titan (supercomputer)">Titan</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_XK7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cray XK7">Cray XK7</a></b><br /><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opteron_6274" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Opteron 6274">Opteron 6274</a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Tesla" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nvidia Tesla">Tesla K20X</a>, Custom</td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cray">Cray</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> (ORNL) in Tennessee<br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, 2012</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray_Linux_Environment" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cray Linux Environment">CLE</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SUSE_Linux_Enterprise_Server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SUSE Linux Enterprise Server">SLES</a> based)</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">2</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">16.325<br />20.133</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Sequoia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM Sequoia">Sequoia</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Gene/Q" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blue Gene/Q">Blue Gene/Q</a></b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_A2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PowerPC A2">PowerPC A2</a>, Custom</td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Livermore_National_Laboratory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory">Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, 2011</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Red Hat Enterprise Linux">RHEL</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNK_operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CNK operating system">CNK</a>)</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">3</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">10.510<br />11.280</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="K computer">K computer</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIKEN" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="RIKEN">RIKEN</a></b><br /><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARC64_VIIIfx" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SPARC64 VIIIfx">SPARC64 VIIIfx</a>, Tofu</td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujitsu" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fujitsu">Fujitsu</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIKEN" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="RIKEN">RIKEN</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a>, 2011</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a></td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">4</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8.162<br />10.066</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Mira" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM Mira">Mira</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Gene/Q" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blue Gene/Q">Blue Gene/Q</a></b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_A2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PowerPC A2">PowerPC A2</a>, Custom</td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, 2012</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Red Hat Enterprise Linux">RHEL</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNK_operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CNK operating system">CNK</a>)</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">5</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4.141<br />5.033</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JUQUEEN&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="JUQUEEN (page does not exist)">JUQUEEN</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Gene/Q" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blue Gene/Q">Blue Gene/Q</a></b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_A2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PowerPC A2">PowerPC A2</a>, Custom</td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forschungszentrum_J%C3%BClich" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Forschungszentrum Jülich">Forschungszentrum Jülich</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="13" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/22px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/33px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/44px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Germany">Germany</a>, 2012</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Red Hat Enterprise Linux">RHEL</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNK_operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CNK operating system">CNK</a>)</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">6</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2.897<br />3.185</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SuperMUC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SuperMUC">SuperMUC</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDataPlex" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IDataPlex">iDataPlex</a> DX360M4</b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Bridge-E" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sandy Bridge-E">Xeon E5–2680</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiniband" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Infiniband">Infiniband</a></td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz-Rechenzentrum" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Leibniz-Rechenzentrum">Leibniz-Rechenzentrum</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="13" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/22px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/33px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/44px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Germany">Germany</a>, 2012</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a></td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">7</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2.660<br />3.959</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stampede_(supercomputer)&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="Stampede (supercomputer) (page does not exist)">Stampede</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerEdge" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PowerEdge">PowerEdge</a> C8220</b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy_Bridge-E" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sandy Bridge-E">Xeon E5–2680</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiniband" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Infiniband">Infiniband</a></td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dell">Dell</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas_Advanced_Computing_Center" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Texas Advanced Computing Center">Texas Advanced Computing Center</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, 2012</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a></td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">8</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2.566<br />4.701</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe-I" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tianhe-I">Tianhe-1A</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Defense_Technology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="National University of Defense Technology">NUDT</a> YH Cluster</b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulftown" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Gulftown">Xeon 5670</a> + <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nvidia_Tesla" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nvidia Tesla">Tesla 2050</a>, Arch<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#cite_note-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup></td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_University_of_Defense_Technology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="National University of Defense Technology">NUDT</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Supercomputing_Center_of_Tianjin" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin">National Supercomputing Center of Tianjin</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="China">China</a>, 2010</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a></td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">9</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1.725<br />2.097</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_Fermi&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM Fermi (page does not exist)">Fermi</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Gene/Q" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blue Gene/Q">Blue Gene/Q</a></b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC_A2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PowerPC A2">PowerPC A2</a>, Custom</td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CINECA" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CINECA">CINECA</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/22px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/33px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/44px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Italy">Italy</a>, 2012</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Red Hat Enterprise Linux">RHEL</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNK_operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CNK operating system">CNK</a>)</td></tr>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">10</th><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1.515<br />1.944</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><i><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=DARPA_Trial_Subset&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="DARPA Trial Subset (page does not exist)">DARPA Trial Subset</a></i></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_775_(supercomputing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Power 775 (supercomputing)">Power 775</a></b><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/POWER7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="POWER7">POWER7</a>, Custom</td><td align="center" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IBM_Development_Engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #a55858; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM Development Engineering (page does not exist)">IBM Development Engineering</a><br /> <span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, 2012</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Red Hat Enterprise Linux">RHEL</a>)</td></tr>
</tbody><tfoot></tfoot></table>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<b>Legend</b></div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Rank</b> – Position within the TOP500 ranking. In the TOP500 List table, the computers are ordered first by their Rmax value. In the case of equal performances (Rmax value) for different computers, the order is by Rpeak. For sites that have the same computer, the order is by memory size and then alphabetically.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Rmax</b> – The highest score measured using the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LINPACK" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="LINPACK">LINPACK</a> benchmark suite. This is the number that is used to rank the computers. Measured in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000000000000000_(number)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1000000000000000 (number)">quadrillions</a> of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Floating point">floating point</a> operations per<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Second">second</a>, i.e. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="FLOPS">petaflops</a>.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Rpeak</b> – This is the theoretical peak performance of the system. Measured in Pflops.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Name</b> – Some supercomputers are unique, at least on its location, and are therefore christened by its owner.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Computer</b> – The computing platform as it is marketed.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Processor cores</b> – The number of active <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Multi-core">processor cores</a> actively used running Linpack. After this figure is the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Instruction set architecture">processor architecture</a> of the cores named. If the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer network">interconnect</a> between computing nodes is of interest, it's also included here.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Vendor</b> – The manufacturer of the platform and hardware.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Site</b> – The name of the facility operating the supercomputer.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Country</b> – The country in which the computer is situated.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Year</b> – The year of installation/last major update.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><b>Operating System</b> – The operating system that the computer uses.</li>
</ul>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Other_rankings">Other rankings</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TOP500&action=edit&section=3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Other rankings">edit</a>]</span></h2>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Systems_ranked_.231_since_1993">Systems ranked #1 since 1993</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TOP500&action=edit&section=4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Systems ranked #1 since 1993">edit</a>]</span></h3>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Cray <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titan_(supercomputer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Titan (supercomputer)">Titan</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, November 2012 - present)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">IBM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Sequoia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM Sequoia">Sequoia</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Gene/Q" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blue Gene/Q">Blue Gene/Q</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, June 2012 – November 2012)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Fujitsu <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="K computer">K computer</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a>, June 2011 – June 2012)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">NUDT <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tianhe-I" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tianhe-I">Tianhe-1A</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="China">China</a>, November 2010 – June 2011)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Cray <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar_(computer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jaguar (computer)">Jaguar</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, November 2009 – November 2010)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">IBM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Roadrunner" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM Roadrunner">Roadrunner</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, June 2008 – November 2009)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">IBM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Gene" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blue Gene">Blue Gene</a>/L (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, November 2004 – June 2008)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">NEC <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_Simulator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Earth Simulator">Earth Simulator</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a>, June 2002 – November 2004)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">IBM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCI_White" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ASCI White">ASCI White</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, November 2000 – June 2002)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Intel <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCI_Red" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ASCI Red">ASCI Red</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, June 1997 – November 2000)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Hitachi <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi_SR2201" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hitachi SR2201">CP-PACS</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a>, November 1996 – June 1997)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Hitachi <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitachi_SR2201" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hitachi SR2201">SR2201</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a>, June 1996 – November 1996)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Fujitsu <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_Wind_Tunnel" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Numerical Wind Tunnel">Numerical Wind Tunnel</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a>, November 1994 – June 1996)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Intel <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Paragon" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel Paragon">Paragon XP/S</a>140 (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, June 1994 – November 1994)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Fujitsu <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_Wind_Tunnel" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Numerical Wind Tunnel">Numerical Wind Tunnel</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a>, November 1993 – June 1994)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">TMC <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CM-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CM-5">CM-5</a> (<span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a>, June 1993 – November 1993)</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Number_of_systems">Number of systems</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TOP500&action=edit&section=5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Number of systems">edit</a>]</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
By number of systems as of June 2012:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TOP500#cite_note-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup></div>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;">
<dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Top processor architectures</dt>
</dl>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="X86-64">x86-64</a> - 435<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel">Intel</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeon" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Xeon">Xeon</a> - 372</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD_Opteron" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="AMD Opteron">AMD Opteron</a> - 62</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Power Architecture">Power</a> - 58</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SPARC">SPARC</a> - 5</li>
</ul>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;">
<dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Top vendors</dt>
</dl>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a> - 213</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="HP">HP</a> - 138</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cray">Cray</a> - 27</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Dell">Dell</a> - 13</li>
</ul>
<dl style="margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.2em;">
<dt style="font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Top regions</dt>
</dl>
<table class="wikitable sortable jquery-tablesorter" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-size: 13px; margin: 1em 0px; text-align: center;"><thead>
<tr><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Country</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Nov 12</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Jun 12</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Nov 11</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Jun 11</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Nov 10</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Jun 10</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Nov 09</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Jun 09</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Nov 08</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Jun 08</th><th class="headerSort" style="background-color: #f2f2f2; background-image: url(data:image/gif; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); cursor: pointer; padding: 0.2em 21px 0.2em 0.2em;" title="Sort ascending">Nov 07</th></tr>
</thead><tbody>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="12" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United States">United States</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">250</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">252</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">263</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">255</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">276</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">280</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">277</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">291</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">291</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">258</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">284</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="China">China</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">72</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">68</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">74</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">61</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">41</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">25</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">21</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">21</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">15</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">12</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">10</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/22px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/33px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/44px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Japan">Japan</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">32</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">35</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">30</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">26</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">26</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">18</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">16</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">15</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">17</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">22</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">20</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">24</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">25</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">27</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">27</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">24</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">38</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">44</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">43</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">45</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">52</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">47</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/22px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/33px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/44px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="France">France</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">21</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">22</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">23</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">25</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">25</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">29</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">26</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">23</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">26</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">34</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">17</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="13" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/22px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/33px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/44px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Germany">Germany</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">19</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">20</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">20</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">30</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">26</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">24</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">27</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">30</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">25</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">47</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">31</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg/22px-Flag_of_Canada.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg/33px-Flag_of_Canada.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/cf/Flag_of_Canada.svg/44px-Flag_of_Canada.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Canada">Canada</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">11</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">10</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">9</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">9</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/22px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/33px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/44px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="India">India</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">9</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Russia">Russia</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">12</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">11</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">11</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b9/Flag_of_Australia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Australia.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Australia">Australia</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/22px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/33px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/44px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Italy">Italy</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">11</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="14" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/22px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/33px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/44px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">10</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">9</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/22px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/33px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/44px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="South Korea">Korea, South</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="14" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/22px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/33px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/44px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Poland">Poland</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="20" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/20px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/30px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Switzerland.svg/40px-Flag_of_Switzerland.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="20" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="13" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/22px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/33px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/44px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Finland">Finland</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="16" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/22px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/33px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/44px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Norway">Norway</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">0</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">11</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/05/Flag_of_Brazil.svg/44px-Flag_of_Brazil.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/22px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/33px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/44px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Spain">Spain</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">9</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/22px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/33px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/44px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Austria">Austria</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/44px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="17" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/22px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/33px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/44px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="16" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/22px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/33px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/44px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Israel">Israel</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="13" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/22px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/33px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/44px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Slovakia">Slovak Republic</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/22px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/33px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/44px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/22px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/33px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/44px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/22px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/33px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/44px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/22px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/33px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/44px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/22px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/33px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg/44px-Flag_of_Hong_Kong.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/22px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/33px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/44px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">5</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">7</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">8</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">6</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/22px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/33px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/44px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="13" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/22px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/33px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/44px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">3</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/22px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/33px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/44px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/22px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/33px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/44px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="15" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/22px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/33px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/44px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
<tr><td align="left" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><span class="flagicon"><img alt="" class="thumbborder" height="13" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/22px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/33px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/44px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" style="border: 1px solid rgb(221, 221, 221); vertical-align: middle;" width="22" /> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxembourg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">1</td></tr>
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<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Large_machines_not_on_the_list">Large machines not on the list</span><span class="mw-editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; display: inline-block; font-size: x-small; line-height: 1em; margin-left: 1em; vertical-align: baseline;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=TOP500&action=edit&section=6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edit section: Large machines not on the list">edit</a>]</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
A few machines that have not been benchmarked are not eligible for the list: such as NCSA's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Waters" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Blue Waters">Blue Waters</a>. Additionally purpose built machines that are not capable or do not run the benchmark are not included: such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIKEN_MDGRAPE-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="RIKEN MDGRAPE-3">RIKEN MDGRAPE-3</a>.</div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
</h2>
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</div>
Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-84262820721310701842013-06-14T21:17:00.000-07:002013-06-14T21:17:19.830-07:00Computer history --The new era of technology<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" lang="en" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.6em; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 0px 0px 0.1em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<span dir="auto">Computer</span></h1>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#mw-navigation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#p-search" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"></a></div>
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<div class="dablink" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">
"Computer technology" and "Computer system" redirect here. For the company, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Technology_Limited" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer Technology Limited">Computer Technology Limited</a>. For other uses, see <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_(disambiguation)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer (disambiguation)">Computer (disambiguation)</a> and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_system_(disambiguation)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer system (disambiguation)">Computer system (disambiguation)</a></div>
<br /><div class="metadata topicon nopopups" id="protected-icon" style="display: none; margin-right: -10px; position: absolute; right: 55px; top: -2em;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="This article is semi-protected indefinitely in response to an ongoing high risk of vandalism."><img alt="Page semi-protected" height="20" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/30px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/40px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="20" /></a></div>
<table cellspacing="3" class="infobox" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-spacing: 3px; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); clear: right; color: black; float: right; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.5em; margin: 0.5em 0px 0.5em 1em; padding: 0.2em; width: 22em;"><caption style="font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold;">Computer</caption><tbody>
<tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: top;"><div style="white-space: nowrap;">
<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acer_Aspire_8920_Gemstone_by_Georgy.JPG" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Acer Aspire 8920 Gemstone by Georgy.JPG" height="81" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Acer_Aspire_8920_Gemstone_by_Georgy.JPG/112px-Acer_Aspire_8920_Gemstone_by_Georgy.JPG" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Acer_Aspire_8920_Gemstone_by_Georgy.JPG/169px-Acer_Aspire_8920_Gemstone_by_Georgy.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Acer_Aspire_8920_Gemstone_by_Georgy.JPG/225px-Acer_Aspire_8920_Gemstone_by_Georgy.JPG 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="112" /></a><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Columbia_Supercomputer_-_NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Facility.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Columbia Supercomputer - NASA Advanced Supercomputing Facility.jpg" height="81" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Columbia_Supercomputer_-_NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Facility.jpg/112px-Columbia_Supercomputer_-_NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Facility.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Columbia_Supercomputer_-_NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Facility.jpg/168px-Columbia_Supercomputer_-_NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Facility.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Columbia_Supercomputer_-_NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Facility.jpg/223px-Columbia_Supercomputer_-_NASA_Advanced_Supercomputing_Facility.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="112" /></a><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Intertec_Superbrain.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Intertec Superbrain.jpg" height="81" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Intertec_Superbrain.jpg/97px-Intertec_Superbrain.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Intertec_Superbrain.jpg/146px-Intertec_Superbrain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Intertec_Superbrain.jpg/193px-Intertec_Superbrain.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="97" /></a><br /><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg" height="79" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg/119px-2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg/179px-2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg/238px-2010-01-26-technikkrempel-by-RalfR-05.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="119" /></a><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thinking_Machines_Connection_Machine_CM-5_Frostburg_2.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Thinking Machines Connection Machine CM-5 Frostburg 2.jpg" height="79" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Thinking_Machines_Connection_Machine_CM-5_Frostburg_2.jpg/95px-Thinking_Machines_Connection_Machine_CM-5_Frostburg_2.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Thinking_Machines_Connection_Machine_CM-5_Frostburg_2.jpg/144px-Thinking_Machines_Connection_Machine_CM-5_Frostburg_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Thinking_Machines_Connection_Machine_CM-5_Frostburg_2.jpg/191px-Thinking_Machines_Connection_Machine_CM-5_Frostburg_2.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="95" /></a><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:G5_supplying_Wikipedia_via_Gigabit_at_the_Lange_Nacht_der_Wissenschaften_2006_in_Dresden.JPG" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="G5 supplying Wikipedia via Gigabit at the Lange Nacht der Wissenschaften 2006 in Dresden.JPG" height="79" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/G5_supplying_Wikipedia_via_Gigabit_at_the_Lange_Nacht_der_Wissenschaften_2006_in_Dresden.JPG/106px-G5_supplying_Wikipedia_via_Gigabit_at_the_Lange_Nacht_der_Wissenschaften_2006_in_Dresden.JPG" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/G5_supplying_Wikipedia_via_Gigabit_at_the_Lange_Nacht_der_Wissenschaften_2006_in_Dresden.JPG/159px-G5_supplying_Wikipedia_via_Gigabit_at_the_Lange_Nacht_der_Wissenschaften_2006_in_Dresden.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/G5_supplying_Wikipedia_via_Gigabit_at_the_Lange_Nacht_der_Wissenschaften_2006_in_Dresden.JPG/211px-G5_supplying_Wikipedia_via_Gigabit_at_the_Lange_Nacht_der_Wissenschaften_2006_in_Dresden.JPG 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="106" /></a><br /><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DM_IBM_S360.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="DM IBM S360.jpg" height="77" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/DM_IBM_S360.jpg/116px-DM_IBM_S360.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/DM_IBM_S360.jpg/174px-DM_IBM_S360.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/DM_IBM_S360.jpg/231px-DM_IBM_S360.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="116" /></a><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acorn_BBC_Master_Series_Microcomputer.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Acorn BBC Master Series Microcomputer.jpg" height="77" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Acorn_BBC_Master_Series_Microcomputer.jpg/103px-Acorn_BBC_Master_Series_Microcomputer.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Acorn_BBC_Master_Series_Microcomputer.jpg/155px-Acorn_BBC_Master_Series_Microcomputer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Acorn_BBC_Master_Series_Microcomputer.jpg/205px-Acorn_BBC_Master_Series_Microcomputer.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="103" /></a><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dell_PowerEdge_Servers.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="Dell PowerEdge Servers.jpg" height="77" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Dell_PowerEdge_Servers.jpg/103px-Dell_PowerEdge_Servers.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Dell_PowerEdge_Servers.jpg/155px-Dell_PowerEdge_Servers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Dell_PowerEdge_Servers.jpg/205px-Dell_PowerEdge_Servers.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="103" /></a></div>
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A <b>computer</b> is a general purpose device that can be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer program">programmed</a> to carry out a finite set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.</div>
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Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU) and some form of<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_(computers)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Memory (computers)">memory</a>. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a> by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Germany">German</a> inventor <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> from 1941 was the first working programmable, fully automatic computing machine. Thus, Zuse is often regarded as the <i>inventor of the computer</i>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup></div>
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The first electronic <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital">digital</a> computers were developed between 1940 and 1945 in the United Kingdom and United States. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> (PCs).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup> In this era<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical</a> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_computers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Analog computers">analog computers</a> were used for military applications.</div>
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Modern computers based on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup> Simple computers are small enough to fit into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_device" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mobile device">mobile devices</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mobile computing">mobile computers</a> can be powered by small<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Battery (electricity)">batteries</a>. Personal computers in their various forms are <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Icon">icons</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_Age" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Information Age">Information Age</a> and are what most people think of as “computers.” However, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Embedded system">embedded computers</a> found in many devices from <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_player" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital audio player">MP3 players</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fighter aircraft">fighter aircraft</a> and from toys to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Industrial robot">industrial robots</a> are the most numerous.</div>
<table class="toc" id="toc" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); font-size: 12px; padding: 5px;"><tbody>
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<h2 style="background-image: none; border: none; display: inline; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;">
Contents</h2>
<span class="toctoggle" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#" id="togglelink" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;">hide</a>] </span></div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0.3em 0px; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#History_of_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History of computing</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Limited-function_early_computers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Limited-function early computers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#First_general-purpose_computers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">First general-purpose computers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Stored-program_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Stored-program architecture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Semiconductors_and_microprocessors" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Semiconductors and microprocessors</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Programs" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Programs</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Stored_program_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Stored program architecture</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Bugs" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bugs</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Machine_code" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Machine code</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Programming language</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Low-level_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Low-level languages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Higher-level_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Higher-level languages</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Program_design" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Program design</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Components" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Components</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Control_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Control unit</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Arithmetic_logic_unit_.28ALU.29" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Memory</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Input.2Foutput_.28I.2FO.29" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Input/output (I/O)</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Multitasking" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Multitasking</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Multiprocessing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Multiprocessing</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Networking_and_the_Internet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">Networking and the Internet</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Computer_architecture_paradigms" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">3.8</span> <span class="toctext">Computer architecture paradigms</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Misconceptions" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Misconceptions</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Required_technology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Required technology</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Further_topics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Further topics</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Artificial_intelligence" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Artificial intelligence</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-27" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Hardware" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Hardware</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-28" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#History_of_computing_hardware" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">History of computing hardware</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Other_hardware_topics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Other hardware topics</span></a></li>
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</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-30" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.3</span> <span class="toctext">Software</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-31" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.4</span> <span class="toctext">Languages</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-32" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Professions_and_organizations" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">5.5</span> <span class="toctext">Professions and organizations</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#See_also" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-34" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#Notes" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-35" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#References" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-36" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#External_links" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_computing">History of computing</span></h2>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="267" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpg/200px-Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Jacquard.loom.full.view.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="200" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loom" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jacquard loom">Jacquard loom</a>, on display at the<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_in_Manchester" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester">Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester</a>, England, was one of the first programmable devices.</div>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></div>
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The first use of the word “computer” was recorded in 1613 in a book called “The yong mans gleanings” by English writer Richard Braithwait <i>I haue read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number</i>. It referred to a person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-OEDComputer_7-0" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-OEDComputer-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Limited-function_early_computers">Limited-function early computers</span></h3>
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The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies, automated calculation and programmability. However no single device can be identified as the earliest computer, partly because of the inconsistent application of that term. A few devices are worth mentioning though, like some mechanical aids to computing, which were very successful and survived for centuries until the advent of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronic calculator">electronic calculator</a>, like the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abacus#Mesopotamian" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Abacus">Sumerian abacus</a>, designed around 2500 BC<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup> of which a descendant won a speed competition against a modern desk calculating machine in Japan in 1946,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-9" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup> the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slide_rule" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Slide rule">slide rules</a>, invented in the 1620s, which were carried on five <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Apollo" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Project Apollo">Apollo</a> space missions, including to the moon<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-10" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup> and arguably the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>, an ancient astronomical computer built by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> around 80 BC.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-11" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup> The Greek mathematician <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hero of Alexandria">Hero of Alexandria</a> (c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup> This is the essence of programmability.</div>
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In 1642, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> saw <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pascal's calculator">the invention</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mechanical calculator">mechanical calculator</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Felt-10_13-0" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-Felt-10-13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup> a device that could perform all four arithmetic operations without relying on human intelligence.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-14" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup> The mechanical calculator was at the root of the development of computers in two separate ways. Initially, it was in trying to develop more powerful and more flexible calculators<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup> that the computer was first theorized by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-16" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-17" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup> and then developed.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-18" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</a></sup> Secondly, development of a low-cost <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronic calculator">electronic calculator</a>, successor to the mechanical calculator, resulted in the development by <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel Corporation">Intel</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-19" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a></sup> of the first commercially available <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> integrated circuit.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="First_general-purpose_computers">First general-purpose computers</span></h3>
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In 1801, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Joseph Marie Jacquard">Joseph Marie Jacquard</a> made an improvement to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Loom">textile loom</a> by introducing a series of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Punched card">punched paper cards</a> as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.</div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacquard_Joseph_Marie_woven_silk.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="332" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Jacquard_Joseph_Marie_woven_silk.jpg/220px-Jacquard_Joseph_Marie_woven_silk.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Jacquard_Joseph_Marie_woven_silk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Jacquard_Joseph_Marie_woven_silk.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
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<b>The Most Famous Image in the Early History of Computing</b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-20" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a></sup></div>
<br />This portrait of Jacquard was woven in silk on a Jacquard loom and required 24,000 punched cards to create (1839). It was only produced to order. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> owned one of these portraits; it inspired him in using perforated cards in his <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_engine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Analytical engine">analytical engine</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-21" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[21]</a></sup></div>
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The <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuse_Z3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Zuse Z3">Zuse Z3</a>, 1941, considered the world's first working programmable, fully automatic computing machine.</div>
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It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a> was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical computer</a>, his <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_engine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Analytical engine">analytical engine</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-22" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[22]</a></sup> Limited finances and Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never completed—nevertheless his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the <i>mill</i>) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. This machine was given to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Museum_(London)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Science Museum (London)">Science museum in South Kensington</a> in 1910.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a>, considered to be the first <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programmer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer programmer">computer programmer</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-23" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[23]</a></sup></div>
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Between 1842 and 1843, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ada Lovelace">Ada Lovelace</a>, an analyst of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Babbage" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a>'s <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_engine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Analytical engine">analytical engine</a>, translated an article by Italian military engineer <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Menabrea" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Luigi Menabrea">Luigi Menabrea</a> on the engine, which she supplemented with an elaborate set of notes of her own, simply called <i>Notes</i>. These notes contain what is considered the first computer program – that is, an algorithm encoded for processing by a machine. Lovelace's notes are important in the early <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="History of computers">history of computers</a>. She also developed a vision on the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching while others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those capabilities.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-24" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[24]</a></sup></div>
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In the late 1880s, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Hollerith" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Herman Hollerith">Herman Hollerith</a> invented the recording of data on a machine-readable medium. Earlier uses of machine-readable media had been for control, not data. “After some initial trials with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_tape" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Punched tape">paper tape</a>, he settled on punched cards...”<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-25" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[25]</a></sup> To process these punched cards he invented the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabulating_machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tabulating machine">tabulator</a>, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keypunch" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Keypunch">keypunch</a> machines. These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1890_United_States_Census" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="1890 United States Census">1890 United States Census</a> by Hollerith's company, which later became the core of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM">IBM</a>. By the end of the 19th century a number of ideas and technologies, that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers, had begun to appear:<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra_(logic)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Boolean algebra (logic)">Boolean algebra</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> (thermionic valve), punched cards and tape, and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Teleprinter">teleprinter</a>.</div>
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During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computing">computing</a> needs were met by increasingly sophisticated<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Analog computer">analog computers</a>, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computation">computation</a>. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> is widely regarded as the father of modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer science">computer science</a>. In 1936, Turing provided an influential formalization of the concept of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computation">computation</a> with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a>, providing a blueprint for the electronic digital computer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DSW_26-0" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-DSW-26" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[26]</a></sup> Of his role in the creation of the modern computer,<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_(magazine)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine in naming Turing one of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">100 most influential</a> people of the 20th century, states: “The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing machine.”<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-DSW_26-1" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-DSW-26" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[26]</a></sup></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Two_women_operating_ENIAC.gif" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="158" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Two_women_operating_ENIAC.gif/240px-Two_women_operating_ENIAC.gif" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Two_women_operating_ENIAC.gif/360px-Two_women_operating_ENIAC.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Two_women_operating_ENIAC.gif/480px-Two_women_operating_ENIAC.gif 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="240" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, which became operational in 1946, is considered to be the first general-purpose electronic computer. Programmers <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Jean_Jennings" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Betty Jean Jennings">Betty Jean Jennings</a> (left) and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran_Bilas" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fran Bilas">Fran Bilas</a> (right) are depicted here operating the ENIAC's main control panel.</div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EDSAC_(10).jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="268" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/EDSAC_%2810%29.jpg/220px-EDSAC_%2810%29.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/EDSAC_%2810%29.jpg/330px-EDSAC_%2810%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/EDSAC_%2810%29.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator">EDSAC</a> was one of the first computers to implement the stored-program (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann</a>) architecture.</div>
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The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a> (ABC) was the world's first electronic digital computer, albeit not <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer programming">programmable</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-27" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[27]</a></sup> Atanasoff is considered to be one of the fathers of the computer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-28" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[28]</a></sup> Conceived in 1937 by Iowa State College physics professor <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Atanasoff" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="John Atanasoff">John Atanasoff</a>, and built with the assistance of graduate student <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford_Berry" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Clifford Berry">Clifford Berry</a>,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-ABC_29-0" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-ABC-29" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[29]</a></sup> the machine was not programmable, being designed only to solve systems of linear equations. The computer did employ parallel computation. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer#Patent_dispute" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">1973 court ruling in a patent dispute</a> found that the patent for the 1946 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> computer derived from the Atanasoff–Berry Computer.</div>
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The first program-controlled computer was invented by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a>, who built the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, an electromechanical computing machine, in 1941.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-30" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[30]</a></sup> The first programmable electronic computer was the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a>, built in 1943 by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Flowers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a>.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Stibitz" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="George Stibitz">George Stibitz</a> is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. While working at Bell Labs in November 1937, Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the “Model K” (for “kitchen table,” on which he had assembled it), which was the first to use<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Binary numeral system">binary</a> circuits to perform <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adder_(electronics)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Adder (electronics)">an arithmetic operation</a>. Later models added greater sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-31" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[31]</a></sup></div>
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A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computing">computing</a> devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Shannon" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a> in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as “the first digital electronic computer” is difficult.<sup class="reference plainlinks nourlexpansion" id="ref_shannon1940" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#endnote_shannon1940" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0b0080; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">Shannon 1940</a></sup> Notable achievements include:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromechanics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electromechanics">electromechanical</a> “Z machines.” The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a> (1941) was the first working machine featuring <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Binary numeral system">binary</a> arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_completeness" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Turing completeness">Turing complete</a>, therefore being the world's first operational computer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-32" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[32]</a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The non-programmable <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a> (commenced in 1937, completed in 1941) which used vacuum tube based <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computation">computation</a>, binary numbers, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regenerative_capacitor_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Regenerative capacitor memory">regenerative capacitor memory</a>. The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be much more compact than its peers (being approximately the size of a large desk or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored and then fed back into the same set of computation elements.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The secret British <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computers</a> (1943),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-33" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[33]</a></sup> which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically re-programmable. It was used for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptanalysis" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cryptanalysis">breaking</a> German wartime codes.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-34" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[34]</a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The U.S. Army's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_Research_Laboratory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ballistic Research Laboratory">Ballistic Research Laboratory</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (1946), which used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decimal" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Decimal">decimal</a> arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronics">electronic</a> computer (since <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a>'s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a> of 1941 used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electromagnet">electromagnets</a> instead of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronics">electronics</a>). Initially, however, ENIAC had an architecture which required rewiring a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plugboard" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Plugboard">plugboard</a> to change its programming.</li>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Stored-program_architecture">Stored-program architecture</span></h3>
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</td><td class="mbox-text" style="border: none; padding: 0.25em 0.5em; width: 675.21875px;"><span class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0b0080; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0b0080; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references or sources</a></b>. <span class="hide-when-compact">Please help improve this section by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Introduction_to_referencing/1" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0b0080; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Help:Introduction to referencing/1">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; color: #0b0080; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <small><i>(July 2012)</i></small></span></td></tr>
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Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the “stored-program architecture” or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>. This design was first formally described by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_von_Neumann" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a> in the paper <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a></i>, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of which was completed in 1948 at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Victoria University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> in England, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Small-Scale_Experimental_Machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine">Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine</a> (SSEM or “Baby”). The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator">Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator</a> (EDSAC), completed a year after the SSEM at Cambridge University, was the first practical, non-experimental implementation of the stored-program design and was put to use immediately for research work at the university. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDVAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a>—was completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.</div>
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Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait by which the word “computer” is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Die (integrated circuit)">Die</a> of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80486DX2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 80486DX2">Intel 80486DX2</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>(actual size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging</div>
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Beginning in the 1950s, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Soviet Union">Soviet</a> scientists <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Sobolev" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sergei Sobolev">Sergei Sobolev</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Brusentsov" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nikolay Brusentsov">Nikolay Brusentsov</a> conducted research on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ternary_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ternary computer">ternary computers</a>, devices that operated on a base three numbering system of -1, 0, and 1 rather than the conventional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_number" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Binary number">binary numbering</a> system upon which most computers are based. They designed the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setun" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Setun">Setun</a>, a functional ternary computer, at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_State_University" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Moscow State University">Moscow State University</a>. The device was put into limited production in the Soviet Union, but supplanted by the more common binary architecture.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Semiconductors_and_microprocessors">Semiconductors and microprocessors</span></h3>
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Computers using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s, but by the 1960s they had been largely replaced by<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Transistor">transistor</a>-based machines, which were smaller, faster, cheaper to produce, required less power, and were more reliable. The first transistorized computer was demonstrated at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Manchester" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> in 1953.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-LavingtonP37_35-0" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-LavingtonP37-35" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[35]</a></sup> In the 1970s, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> technology and the subsequent creation of<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microprocessor">microprocessors</a>, such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>, further decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the late 1970s, many products such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videocassette_recorder" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Videocassette recorder">video recorders</a> contained dedicated computers called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microcontroller">microcontrollers</a>, and they started to appear as a replacement to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Washing machine">washing machines</a>. The 1980s witnessed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Home computer">home computers</a> and the now ubiquitous personal computer. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div>
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Modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smartphone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a> are fully programmable computers in their own right, and as of 2009 may well be the most common form of such computers in existence.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Programs">Programs</span></h2>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> was an influential computer scientist.</div>
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The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer programming">programmed</a>. That is to say that some type of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_(computer_science)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Instruction (computer science)">instructions</a> (the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer program">program</a>) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a>often have machine code in the form of an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperative_programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Imperative programming language">imperative programming language</a>.</div>
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In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Word processor">word processors</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Web browser">web browsers</a> for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLOPS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="FLOPS">gigaflops</a>) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Programmer">programmers</a> years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Stored_program_architecture">Stored program architecture</span></h3>
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Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer program">Computer program</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="145" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/220px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/330px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/440px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
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Replica of the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM), the world's first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stored-program_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a>, at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Manchester)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)">Museum of Science and Industry</a> in Manchester, England</div>
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This section applies to most common <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM_machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="RAM machine">RAM machine</a>-based computers.</div>
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In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer data storage">memory</a> and are generally carried out (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Execution_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Execution (computing)">executed</a>) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called “jump” instructions (or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branch_(computer_science)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Branch (computer science)">branches</a>). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_(programming)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Conditional (programming)">conditionally</a> so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subroutine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Subroutine">subroutines</a> by providing a type of jump that “remembers” the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.</div>
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Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_flow" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Control flow">flow of control</a> within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.</div>
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Comparatively, a person using a pocket <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Calculator">calculator</a> can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. For example:</div>
<pre style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px dashed rgb(47, 111, 171); font-family: monospace, Courier; line-height: 1.3em; padding: 1em;"><code style="font-family: monospace, Courier;"> mov No. 0, sum ; set sum to 0
mov No. 1, num ; set num to 1
loop: add num, sum ; add num to sum
add No. 1, num ; add 1 to num
cmp num, #1000 ; compare num to 1000
ble loop ; if num <= 1000, go back to 'loop'
halt ; end of program. stop running
</code>
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Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of a second.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-36" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[36]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Bugs">Bugs</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_bug" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software bug">Software bug</a></div>
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The actual first computer bug, a moth found trapped on a relay of the Harvard Mark II computer</div>
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Errors in computer programs are called “<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_bug" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software bug">bugs</a>.” They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to “<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hang (computing)">hang</a>,” becoming unresponsive to input such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mouse (computing)">mouse</a> clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crash_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Crash (computing)">crash</a>. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploit</a>, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-37" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-37" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[37]</a></sup></div>
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Admiral <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Hopper" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Grace Hopper">Grace Hopper</a>, an American computer scientist and developer of the first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Compiler">compiler</a>, is credited for having first used the term “bugs” in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_II" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard Mark II">Harvard Mark II</a> computer in September 1947.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-taylor84_38-0" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-taylor84-38" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[38]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Machine_code">Machine code</span></h3>
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In most computers, individual instructions are stored as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Machine code">machine code</a> with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opcode" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Opcode">opcode</a>for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode, the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard architecture">Harvard architecture</a> after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cache" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CPU cache">CPU caches</a>.</div>
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While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Machine code">machine language</a>) and while this technique was used with many early computers,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-39" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-39" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[39]</a></sup> it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember – a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a>. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.</div>
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A 1970s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Punched card">punched card</a> containing one line from a<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fortran">FORTRAN</a> program. The card reads: “Z(1) = Y + W(1)” and is labeled “PROJ039” for identification purposes.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Programming_language">Programming language</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></div>
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Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Natural language">natural languages</a>, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Machine code">machine code</a> by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Compiler">compiler</a> or an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembler_(computer_programming)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Assembler (computer programming)">assembler</a> before being run, or translated directly at run time by an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Low-level_languages">Low-level languages</span></h4>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-level_programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Low-level programming language">Low-level programming language</a></div>
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Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed <i>low-level programming languages</i>) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ARM architecture">ARM architecture</a> computer (such as may be found in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Personal digital assistant">PDA</a> or a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handheld_video_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Handheld video game">hand-held videogame</a>) cannot understand the machine language of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pentium">Intel Pentium</a> or the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlon_64" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Athlon 64">AMD Athlon 64</a> computer that might be in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Personal computer">PC</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-40" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[40]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Higher-level_languages">Higher-level languages</span></h4>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="High-level programming language">High-level programming language</a></div>
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Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> that are able to express the needs of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Programmer">programmer</a> more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually “compiled” into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Compiler">compiler</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-41" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-41" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[41]</a></sup> High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_console" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a>.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Program_design">Program design</span></h3>
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Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer software">software</a> systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a> concentrates specifically on this challenge.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Components">Components</span></h2>
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Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></div>
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A general purpose computer has four main components: the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Arithmetic logic unit">arithmetic logic unit</a> (ALU), the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Control unit">control unit</a>, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer data storage">memory</a>, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bus (computing)">buses</a>, often made of groups of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wire">wires</a>.</div>
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Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_network" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electrical network">electrical circuits</a> which can be turned off or on by means of an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Transistor">electronic switch</a>. Each circuit represents a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bit">bit</a> (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a “1”, and when off it represents a “0” (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gate" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a> so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.</div>
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The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> called a <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a></i>.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Control_unit">Control unit</span></h3>
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Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_design" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CPU design">CPU design</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Control unit">Control unit</a></div>
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Diagram showing how a particular <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS architecture</a> instruction would be decoded by the control system.</div>
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The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into a series of control signals which activate other parts of the computer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-42" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[42]</a></sup> Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.</div>
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A key component common to all CPUs is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_counter" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Program counter">program counter</a>, a special memory cell (a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_register" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Processor register">register</a>) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-43" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[43]</a></sup></div>
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The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Jump back to step (1).</li>
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Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as “jumps” and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_flow" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Control flow">control flow</a>).</div>
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The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsequencer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microsequencer">microsequencer</a>, which runs a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microcode">microcode</a> program that causes all of these events to happen.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Arithmetic_logic_unit_.28ALU.29">Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Arithmetic logic unit">Arithmetic logic unit</a></div>
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The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-44" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-44" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[44]</a></sup></div>
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The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigonometry" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a> functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_root" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Square root">square roots</a>. Some can only operate on whole numbers (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Integer">integers</a>) whilst others use <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Floating point">floating point</a> to represent <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_number" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Real number">real numbers</a>, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_value" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Truth value">boolean truth values</a> (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other (“is 64 greater than 65?”).</div>
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Logic operations involve <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_logic" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Boolean logic">Boolean logic</a>: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Logical conjunction">AND</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_disjunction" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Logical disjunction">OR</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exclusive_or" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Exclusive or">XOR</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Negation">NOT</a>. These can be useful for creating complicated <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_(programming)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Conditional (programming)">conditional statements</a> and processing <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_logic" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Boolean logic">boolean logic</a>.</div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superscalar" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Superscalar">Superscalar</a> computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-45" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[45]</a></sup> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processors</a> and computers with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIMD" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SIMD">SIMD</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMD" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="MIMD">MIMD</a> features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_vector" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Euclidean vector">vectors</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrices</a>.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Memory">Memory</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_data_storage" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer data storage">Computer data storage</a></div>
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<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_core_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Magnetic core memory">Magnetic core memory</a> was the computer memory of choice throughout the 1960s, until it was replaced by semiconductor memory.</div>
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A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered “address” and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to “put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357” or to “add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595.” The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.</div>
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In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Binary numeral system">binary numbers</a> in groups of eight bits (called a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Byte">byte</a>). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2^8 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Two's complement">two's complement</a> notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.</div>
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The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_register" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Processor register">registers</a> that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.</div>
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Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random-access_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> or RAM and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> that orchestrates loading the computer's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Operating system">operating system</a> from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Embedded system">embedded computers</a>, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmware" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Firmware">firmware</a>, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-46" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[46]</a></sup></div>
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In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPU_cache" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CPU cache">cache memories</a>, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Input.2Foutput_.28I.2FO.29">Input/output (I/O)</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Input/output">Input/output</a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drives</a> are common storage devices used with computers.</div>
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I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-47" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[47]</a></sup> Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Peripheral">peripherals</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-48" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[48]</a></sup> On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mouse (computing)">mouse</a>, and output devices such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer monitor">display</a>and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printer_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Printer (computing)">printer</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drives</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk drives</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc_drive" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical disc drive">optical disc drives</a> serve as both input and output devices. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networking" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer networking">Computer networking</a> is another form of I/O.</div>
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I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Graphics processing unit">graphics processing unit</a> might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="3D computer graphics">3D graphics</a>.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Modern <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Desktop computer">desktop computers</a> contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Multitasking">Multitasking</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_multitasking" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer multitasking">Computer multitasking</a></div>
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While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-49" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[49]</a></sup></div>
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One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Interrupt">interrupt</a>, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running “at the same time,” then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed “time-sharing” since each program is allocated a “slice” of time in turn.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-50" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[50]</a></sup></div>
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Before the era of cheap computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.</div>
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Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a “time slice” until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiprocessing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cray" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cray">Cray</a> designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.</div>
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Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computers</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>. Multiprocessor and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-core" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Multi-core">multi-core</a> (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.</div>
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Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-51" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[51]</a></sup> They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_simulation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer simulation">simulation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">graphics rendering</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> applications, as well as with other so-called “<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embarrassingly_parallel" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Embarrassingly parallel">embarrassingly parallel</a>” tasks.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Networking_and_the_Internet">Networking and the Internet</span></h3>
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Main articles: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networking" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer networking">Computer networking</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet">Internet</a></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="220" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/220px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/330px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/440px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
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Visualization of a portion of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Routing">routes</a> on the Internet.</div>
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Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semi_Automatic_Ground_Environment" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Semi Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a> system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems such as<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabre_(computer_system)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Sabre (computer system)">Sabre</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-52" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[52]</a></sup></div>
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In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>), and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer network">computer network</a> that resulted was called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-53" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-53" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[53]</a></sup>The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.</div>
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In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> and<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_digital_subscriber_line" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Asymmetric digital subscriber line">ADSL</a> saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. “Wireless” networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Computer_architecture_paradigms">Computer architecture paradigms</span></h3>
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There are many types of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer architecture">computer architectures</a>:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Quantum computer">Quantum computer</a> vs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Chemical computer">Chemical computer</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar_processor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Scalar processor">Scalar processor</a> vs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_processor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vector processor">Vector processor</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Uniform_Memory_Access" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Non-Uniform Memory Access">Non-Uniform Memory Access</a> (NUMA) computers</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Register_machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Register machine">Register machine</a> vs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stack_machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Stack machine">Stack machine</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard architecture">Harvard architecture</a> vs <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cellular architecture">Cellular architecture</a></li>
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The quantum computer architecture holds the most promise to revolutionize computing.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-54" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-54" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[54]</a></sup></div>
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<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic_gates" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Logic gates">Logic gates</a> are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital">digital</a> or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Analog signal">analog</a> paradigms.</div>
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The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_program" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer program">programs</a> makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Calculator">calculators</a>. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Church–Turing thesis">Church–Turing thesis</a> is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing-complete" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Turing-complete">minimum capability (being Turing-complete)</a> is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore any type of computer (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netbook" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Netbook">netbook</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Supercomputer">supercomputer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_automaton" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Cellular automaton">cellular automaton</a>, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Misconceptions">Misconceptions</span></h2>
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Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Human computer">Human computer</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Computers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></div>
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<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Human_computers_-_Dryden.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="172" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Human_computers_-_Dryden.jpg/220px-Human_computers_-_Dryden.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Human_computers_-_Dryden.jpg/330px-Human_computers_-_Dryden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Human_computers_-_Dryden.jpg/440px-Human_computers_-_Dryden.jpg 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="220" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
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Women as <i>computers</i> in NACA High Speed Flight Station "Computer Room"</div>
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A computer does not need to be <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronics">electronic</a>, nor even have a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Central processing unit">processor</a>, nor <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAM" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="RAM">RAM</a>, nor even a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hard disk">hard disk</a>. While popular usage of the word “computer” is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, the modern<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-55" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[55]</a></sup> definition of a computer is literally “<i>A device that computes</i>, especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information.”<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-56" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[56]</a></sup> Any device which <i>processes information</i> qualifies as a computer, especially if the processing is purposeful.</div>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Required_technology">Required technology</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unconventional_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Unconventional computing">Unconventional computing</a></div>
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Historically, computers evolved from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical computers</a> and eventually from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_tube" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Transistor">transistors</a>. However, conceptually computational systems as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_complete" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Turing complete">flexible</a> as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billiard_ball_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Billiard ball computer">billiard ball computer</a>); an often quoted example.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> More realistically, modern computers are made out of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transistors" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Transistors">transistors</a> made of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolithography" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Photolithography">photolithographed</a><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductors" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Semiconductors">semiconductors</a>.</div>
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There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical computing">optical computers</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="DNA computing">DNA computers</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetware_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wetware computer">neural computers</a>, and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Quantum computing">quantum computers</a>. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computable_function" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computable function">computable function</a>, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shor%27s_algorithm" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Shor's algorithm">quantum factoring</a>) very quickly.</div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Further_topics">Further topics</span></h2>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Glossary of computers">Glossary of computers</a></li>
</ul>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_learning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a>.</div>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Hardware">Hardware</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">
Main articles: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer hardware">Computer hardware</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_computer_hardware" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Personal computer hardware">Personal computer hardware</a></div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The term <i>hardware</i> covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.</div>
<h4 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 15px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_computing_hardware">History of computing hardware</span></h4>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">
Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></div>
<table class="wikitable" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-size: 13px; margin: 1em 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">First generation (mechanical/electromechanical)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Calculators</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pascal's calculator">Pascal's calculator</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmometer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Arithmometer">Arithmometer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_engine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Difference engine">Difference engine</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norden_bombsight" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Norden bombsight">Norden bombsight</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Programmable devices</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loom" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Jacquard loom">Jacquard loom</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_engine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Analytical engine">Analytical engine</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z3_(computer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Second generation (vacuum tubes)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Calculators</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_604" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM 604">IBM 604</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remington_Rand_409" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Remington Rand 409">UNIVAC 60</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remington_Rand_409" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Remington Rand 409">UNIVAC 120</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vacuum_tube_computers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of vacuum tube computers">Programmable devices</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Small-Scale_Experimental_Machine" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine">Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator">EDSAC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_Pegasus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ferranti Pegasus">Ferranti Pegasus</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferranti_Mercury" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ferranti Mercury">Ferranti Mercury</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSIRAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="CSIRAC">CSIRAC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDVAC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_I" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="UNIVAC I">UNIVAC I</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_701" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_702" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM 702">IBM 702</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_650" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM 650">IBM 650</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z22_(computer)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Z22 (computer)">Z22</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Third generation (discrete transistors and SSI, MSI, LSI <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_circuit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mainframe_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframes</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7090" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM 7090">IBM 7090</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_7080" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM 7080">IBM 7080</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/360" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM System/360">IBM System/360</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BUNCH" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="BUNCH">BUNCH</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Minicomputer">Minicomputer</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PDP-8">PDP-8</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-11" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/32" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM System/32">IBM System/32</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/36" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM System/36">IBM System/36</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="8" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Fourth generation (VLSI integrated circuits)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Minicomputer</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="VAX">VAX</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System_i" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM System i">IBM System i</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-bit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="4-bit">4-bit</a> microcomputer</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4004" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_4040" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 4040">Intel 4040</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/8-bit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="8-bit">8-bit</a> microcomputer</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8008" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 8008">Intel 8008</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8080" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 8080">Intel 8080</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6800" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Motorola 6800">Motorola 6800</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_6809" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Motorola 6809">Motorola 6809</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="MOS Technology 6502">MOS Technology 6502</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z80" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="16-bit">16-bit</a> microcomputer</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 8088">Intel 8088</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zilog_Z8000" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Zilog Z8000">Zilog Z8000</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WDC_65816/65802" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="WDC 65816/65802">WDC 65816/65802</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/32-bit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="32-bit">32-bit</a> microcomputer</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 80386">Intel 80386</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentium" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pentium">Pentium</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motorola_68000" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Motorola 68000">Motorola 68000</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ARM architecture">ARM architecture</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64-bit" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="64-bit">64-bit</a> microcomputer<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57" style="line-height: 1em; unicode-bidi: -webkit-isolate;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer#cite_note-57" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none; white-space: nowrap;">[57]</a></sup></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEC_Alpha" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="DEC Alpha">Alpha</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PA-RISC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PA-RISC">PA-RISC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerPC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SPARC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SPARC">SPARC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86-64" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="X86-64">x86-64</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Embedded system">Embedded computer</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8048" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 8048">Intel 8048</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8051" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Intel 8051">Intel 8051</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Personal computer</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Desktop computer">Desktop computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Home computer">Home computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Laptop">Laptop computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Personal digital assistant">Personal digital assistant</a> (PDA), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Portable computer">Portable computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablet_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Tablet computer">Tablet PC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wearable_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Wearable computer">Wearable computer</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Theoretical/experimental</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Quantum computer">Quantum computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_computer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Chemical computer">Chemical computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="DNA computing">DNA computing</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonic_computing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Photonic computing">Optical computer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spintronics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Spintronics">Spintronics based computer</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h4 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 15px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Other_hardware_topics">Other hardware topics</span></h4>
<table class="wikitable" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-size: 13px; margin: 1em 0px;"><tbody>
<tr><td rowspan="3" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Peripheral">Peripheral device</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input/output" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Input/output">input/output</a>)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Input</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mouse (computing)">Mouse</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Keyboard (computing)">keyboard</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joystick" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Joystick">joystick</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_scanner" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Image scanner">image scanner</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcam" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Webcam">webcam</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphics_tablet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Graphics tablet">graphics tablet</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microphone">microphone</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Output</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer monitor">Monitor</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printer_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Printer (computing)">printer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_speaker" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer speaker">loudspeaker</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Both</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_disk" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk drive</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hard disk drive">hard disk drive</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_disc" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical disc">optical disc</a> drive, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Teleprinter">teleprinter</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bus_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bus (computing)">Computer busses</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Short range</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RS-232" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="RS-232">RS-232</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SCSI" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SCSI">SCSI</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_PCI" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Conventional PCI">PCI</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Universal Serial Bus">USB</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Long range (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_networking" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer networking">computer networking</a>)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">ATM</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_distributed_data_interface" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fiber distributed data interface">FDDI</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Software">Software</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">
Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer software">Computer software</a></div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<i>Software</i> refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a> in an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM PC compatible">IBM PC compatible</a>), it is sometimes called “firmware.”</div>
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<tr><td rowspan="7" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Unix">Unix</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Berkeley Software Distribution">BSD</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIX_System_V" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="UNIX System V">UNIX System V</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_AIX" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM AIX">IBM AIX</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP-UX" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="HP-UX">HP-UX</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Solaris (operating system)">Solaris</a> (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="SunOS">SunOS</a>), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRIX" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IRIX">IRIX</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_BSD_operating_systems" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of BSD operating systems">List of BSD operating systems</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="GNU">GNU</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Linux">Linux</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of Linux distributions">List of Linux distributions</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Linux_distributions" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Comparison of Linux distributions">Comparison of Linux distributions</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows 95">Windows 95</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows 98">Windows 98</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows NT">Windows NT</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2000" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows 2000">Windows 2000</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Me" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows Me">Windows Me</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_XP" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows XP">Windows XP</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows Vista">Windows Vista</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows 7">Windows 7</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Windows 8">Windows 8</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="DOS">DOS</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/86-DOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="86-DOS">86-DOS</a> (QDOS), <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC_DOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="IBM PC DOS">PC-DOS</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DR-DOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="DR-DOS">DR-DOS</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeDOS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="FreeDOS">FreeDOS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mac OS">Mac OS</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mac OS">Mac OS classic</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mac OS X">Mac OS X</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Embedded operating system">Embedded</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Real-time operating system">real-time</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_operating_systems#Embedded" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of operating systems">List of embedded operating systems</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Experimental</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoeba_distributed_operating_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Amoeba distributed operating system">Amoeba</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberon_(operating_system)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Oberon (operating system)">Oberon</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluebottle_OS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bluebottle OS">Bluebottle</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Plan 9 from Bell Labs">Plan 9 from Bell Labs</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Library (computing)">Library</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Multimedia">Multimedia</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DirectX" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="DirectX">DirectX</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenGL" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="OpenGL">OpenGL</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenAL" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="OpenAL">OpenAL</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Programming library</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_standard_library" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="C standard library">C standard library</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Template_Library" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Standard Template Library">Standard Template Library</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Data (computing)">Data</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Protocol (computing)">Protocol</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol_Suite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet Protocol Suite">TCP/IP</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermit_(protocol)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Kermit (protocol)">Kermit</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="File Transfer Protocol">FTP</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">HTTP</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">SMTP</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_format" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="File format">File format</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="HTML">HTML</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="XML">XML</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JPEG" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moving_Picture_Experts_Group" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Moving Picture Experts Group">MPEG</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Portable Network Graphics">PNG</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="2" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="User interface">User interface</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Graphical user interface">Graphical user interface</a>(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WIMP_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="WIMP (computing)">WIMP</a>)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="GNOME">GNOME</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDE" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="KDE">KDE</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QNX" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="QNX">QNX Photon</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Desktop_Environment" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Common Desktop Environment">CDE</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_Environment_Manager" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Graphical Environment Manager">GEM</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqua_(user_interface)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Aqua (user interface)">Aqua</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text-based_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Text-based (computing)">Text-based user interface</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command-line_interface" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Command-line interface">Command-line interface</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_user_interface" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Text user interface">Text user interface</a></td></tr>
<tr><td rowspan="9" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Application software">Application</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_suite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Office suite">Office suite</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Word processing">Word processing</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_publishing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Desktop publishing">Desktop publishing</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presentation_program" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Presentation program">Presentation program</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_management_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Database management system">Database management system</a>, Scheduling & Time management, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Spreadsheet">Spreadsheet</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Accounting software">Accounting software</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Internet Access</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Web browser">Browser</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_client" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="E-mail client">E-mail client</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Web server">Web server</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_transfer_agent" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mail transfer agent">Mail transfer agent</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Instant messaging">Instant messaging</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Design and manufacturing</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_design" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer-aided design">Computer-aided design</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_manufacturing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer-aided manufacturing">Computer-aided manufacturing</a>, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_graphics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raster_graphics_editor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Raster graphics editor">Raster graphics editor</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_graphics_editor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Vector graphics editor">Vector graphics editor</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="3D computer graphics software">3D modeler</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_animation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer animation">Animation editor</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_computer_graphics" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="3D computer graphics">3D computer graphics</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_editing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Video editing">Video editing</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_processing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Image processing">Image processing</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital audio">Audio</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_audio_editor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Digital audio editor">Digital audio editor</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audio_player_(software)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Audio player (software)">Audio playback</a>, Mixing, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_synthesizer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software synthesizer">Audio synthesis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_music" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer music">Computer music</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Compiler">Compiler</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembler_(computer_programming)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Assembler (computer programming)">Assembler</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debugger" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Debugger">Debugger</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_editor" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Text editor">Text editor</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_performance_analysis" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software performance analysis">Software performance analysis</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revision_control" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Revision control">Revision control</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_configuration_management" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Educational</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edutainment" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Edutainment">Edutainment</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Educational game">Educational game</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serious_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Serious game">Serious game</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_simulator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Flight simulator">Flight simulator</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Video game">Games</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategy_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Strategy game">Strategy</a>, Arcade, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puzzle_video_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Puzzle video game">Puzzle</a>, Simulation, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-person_shooter" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="First-person shooter">First-person shooter</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Platform game">Platform</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Massively multiplayer online game">Massively multiplayer</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_fiction" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Interactive fiction">Interactive fiction</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Misc</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antivirus_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Antivirus software">Antivirus software</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware_scanner" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Malware scanner">Malware scanner</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Installation_(computer_programs)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Installation (computer programs)">Installer</a>/<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Package_management_system" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Package management system">Package management systems</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_manager" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="File manager">File manager</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="mw-headline" id="Languages">Languages</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.</div>
<table class="wikitable" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-size: 13px; margin: 1em 0px;"><caption style="font-weight: bold;"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a></b></caption><tbody>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Lists of programming languages</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_programming_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline of programming languages</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_programming_languages_by_category" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of programming languages by category">List of programming languages by category</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generational_list_of_programming_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational list of programming languages</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_programming_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="List of programming languages">List of programming languages</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based programming languages</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Commonly used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Assembly language">assembly languages</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="ARM architecture">ARM</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIPS_architecture" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_assembly_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="X86 assembly language">x86</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Commonly used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_programming_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BASIC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COBOL" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="COBOL">COBOL</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Fortran">Fortran</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_Pascal" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Commonly used <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scripting_language" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_shell" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Bourne shell">Bourne script</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHP" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="PHP">PHP</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Perl">Perl</a></td></tr>
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<span class="mw-headline" id="Professions_and_organizations">Professions and organizations</span></h3>
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As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.</div>
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<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Hardware-related</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Optical engineering">Optical engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanoengineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Nanoengineering">Nanoengineering</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Software-related</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer science">Computer science</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desktop_publishing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Desktop publishing">Desktop publishing</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a>, Information technology, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems_(discipline)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Information systems (discipline)">Information systems</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_science" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Computational science">Computational science</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_industry" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Video game industry">Video game industry</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_design" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Web design">Web design</a></td></tr>
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The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.</div>
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<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Standards groups</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="American National Standards Institute">ANSI</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">IEEE</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">IETF</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="World Wide Web Consortium">W3C</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Professional societies</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Information_Systems" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Association for Information Systems">AIS</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Institution of Engineering and Technology">IET</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_for_Information_Processing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="International Federation for Information Processing">IFIP</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Computer_Society" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="British Computer Society">BCS</a></td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Free software">Free</a>/<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Open source software">open source software</a> groups</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Foundation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Mozilla Foundation">Mozilla Foundation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Software_Foundation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: none;" title="Apache Software Foundation">Apache Software Foundation</a>\<br /><br /></td></tr>
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Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-25055422376693880652013-06-14T21:03:00.001-07:002013-06-14T21:09:47.897-07:00How to be healthy for whole life <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: magenta;"><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;">Always thinking about the health and still not getting it ....</span></b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="color: magenta;"><b><i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;">Everyone wants to be healthy
but can it looks easier than said .</span></i></b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<b><i><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 13.5pt;"><span style="color: magenta;">There are some things which
needs to be done in order to get a good health and at least you will feel more
healthier when you will adapt to these things .This will look difficult to
adapt to these but once you take these you will feel much better than you are
now and once you overcome bad habits it is sure that you will be healthier for
life so go and get some good habits </span><span style="color: #414141;">......</span></span></i></b><span style="color: black; font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Choose Healthy Foods</span></h3>
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<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Choose food that contains minimal amounts of unhealthy fats</b>. Unhealthy fats include both trans fats and saturated fats. These fats will raise your LDL cholesterol, and elevated LDL cholesterol often correlates with an increased risk for heart disease.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Eat healthy fats in moderation</b>. Poly-unsaturated, mono-unsaturated and omega-3 fats are all good lifestyle choices.These good fats lower your LDL cholesterol and raise your HDL cholesterol, which correlates with decreased risk for heart disease.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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3</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Select foods that are low in both sugar and highly refined carbohydrates</b>. Minimize your consumption of sweets, soft drinks, sugary fruit juices and white bread. Choose whole fruits, freshly-squeezed juices and whole grain bread instead.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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4</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Eat a variety of different whole foods instead of eating processed foods</b>.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-4.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 4.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="359" src="http://pad3.whstatic.com/images/thumb/5/5f/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-4.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-4.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
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<li style="border: none; clear: none; margin: 0px; padding: 6px;">Eat fruits and vegetables for their high vitamin and mineral content.<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<li style="border: none; clear: none; margin: 0px; padding: 6px;">Choose lean meat, beans and tofu for their protein content.<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<li style="border: none; clear: none; margin: 0px; padding: 6px;">Enjoy whole grains such as whole wheat bread, whole wheat pasta, brown rice and quinoa.<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<li style="border: none; clear: none; margin: 0px; padding: 6px;">Eat low-fat dairy products. Skim milk and reduced fat cheeses will reduce your fat intake while ensuring that you receive enough calcium.<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Incorporate organic foods</b>. Shop at a natural food store or buy food from your local farmer's market.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-5.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 5.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="346" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/2/22/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-5.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-5.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
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<a href="" name="Get_Some_Exercise" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></a></div>
<h3 style="background-color: #e7e3d7; background-image: url(http://pad2.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/sub_header_end.gif); background-position: 100% 0%; color: #414141; height: 31px; line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em 1em; padding: 0px 0px 0px 0.5em; width: 625.875px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Get Some Exercise</span></h3>
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<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Start and finish your workout with <a class="external text" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Stretch" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="http://www.wikihow.com/Stretch">stretching</a></b>. Gentle stretching will warm up your muscles before you work out and will relax your muscles after you work out.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-6.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 6.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad3.whstatic.com/images/thumb/5/52/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-6.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-6.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
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<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Go to the gym 3 to 5 times per week</b>. Work out for half an hour to an hour, combining both cardio and strength training programs.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-7.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 7.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="348" src="http://pad2.whstatic.com/images/thumb/4/45/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-7.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-7.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
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3</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Exercise in your neighborhood</b>. Go for a jog or take your dog for a walk. Make sure that you move at a moderate pace for at least 30 minutes.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-8.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 8.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="342" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/9/90/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-8.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-8.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
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4</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Enjoy rigorous daily activities</b>. Both high-intensity gardening and housekeeping can exercise your body.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 388px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-9.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 9.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="388" src="http://pad2.whstatic.com/images/thumb/0/0f/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-9.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-9.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="wikihow_watermark" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/wikihow_watermark.png); background-position: 100% 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; height: 23px; margin: -30px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px; z-index: 1;">
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</div>
<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
</div>
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<li class="steps_li final_li" style="border: 0px; clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 20px 20px 80px;"><div class="step_num" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/header.png); background-position: -220px -80px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; clear: right; color: white; float: left; font-size: 1.45em; height: 31px; line-height: 31px; margin: 0px 19px 0px -50px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; width: 31px;">
5</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Ditch your car</b>. Walk or bike to your destination instead.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-10.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 10.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad3.whstatic.com/images/thumb/3/34/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-10.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-10.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
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<div style="color: #414141; line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0px 27px 20px 23px;">
<a href="" name="Avoid_Unhealthy_Habits" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></a></div>
<h3 style="background-color: #e7e3d7; background-image: url(http://pad2.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/sub_header_end.gif); background-position: 100% 0%; color: #414141; height: 31px; line-height: 30px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em 1em; padding: 0px 0px 0px 0.5em; width: 625.875px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Avoid Unhealthy Habits</span></h3>
<ol class="steps_list_2" style="color: #414141; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="border-bottom-color: rgb(191, 191, 191); border-bottom-style: dashed; border-bottom-width: 1px; clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 20px 20px 80px;"><div class="step_num" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/header.png); background-position: -220px -80px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; clear: right; color: white; float: left; font-size: 1.45em; height: 31px; line-height: 31px; margin: 0px 19px 0px -50px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; width: 31px;">
1</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Avoid yo-yo dieting</b>. Once you've lost weight thanks to your improved lifestyle, then work hard to maintain your weight instead of cycling up and down the scale.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-11.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 11.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/7/71/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-11.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-11.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="wikihow_watermark" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/wikihow_watermark.png); background-position: 100% 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; height: 23px; margin: -30px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px; z-index: 1;">
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<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
</div>
</li>
<li style="border-bottom-color: rgb(191, 191, 191); border-bottom-style: dashed; border-bottom-width: 1px; clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 20px 20px 80px;"><div class="step_num" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/header.png); background-position: -220px -80px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; clear: right; color: white; float: left; font-size: 1.45em; height: 31px; line-height: 31px; margin: 0px 19px 0px -50px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; width: 31px;">
2</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Stay away from fad diets</b>. Avoid liquid diets, diet pills and other diet supplements unless you are under the supervision of a physician.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 358px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-12.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 12.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="358" src="http://pad3.whstatic.com/images/thumb/3/32/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-12.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-12.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="wikihow_watermark" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/wikihow_watermark.png); background-position: 100% 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; height: 23px; margin: -30px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px; z-index: 1;">
</div>
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<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
</div>
</li>
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3</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Exercise in moderation</b>. Working out too long, too often or with too much intensity can increase your risk for injury. Make sure to build in some rest periods between your workouts.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-13.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 13.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad2.whstatic.com/images/thumb/6/66/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-13.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-13.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="wikihow_watermark" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/wikihow_watermark.png); background-position: 100% 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; height: 23px; margin: -30px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px; z-index: 1;">
</div>
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<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
</div>
</li>
<li style="border-bottom-color: rgb(191, 191, 191); border-bottom-style: dashed; border-bottom-width: 1px; clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 20px 20px 80px;"><div class="step_num" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/header.png); background-position: -220px -80px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; clear: right; color: white; float: left; font-size: 1.45em; height: 31px; line-height: 31px; margin: 0px 19px 0px -50px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; width: 31px;">
4</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Know what you weigh</b>. Being overweight and being underweight are not healthy states of being. Consult your doctor or a reputable weight chart that shows ideal weights for your age and body type.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 328px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-14.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 14.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="328" src="http://pad2.whstatic.com/images/thumb/0/05/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-14.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-14.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="wikihow_watermark" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/wikihow_watermark.png); background-position: 100% 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; height: 23px; margin: -30px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px; z-index: 1;">
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5</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Avoid excessive smoking and alcohol intake</b>.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 349px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-15.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 15.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="349" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/3/39/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-15.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-15.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="wikihow_watermark" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/wikihow_watermark.png); background-position: 100% 0px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; height: 23px; margin: -30px 0px 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px; z-index: 1;">
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<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<li class="steps_li final_li" style="border: 0px; clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 20px 20px 80px;"><div class="step_num" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/header.png); background-position: -220px -80px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; clear: right; color: white; float: left; font-size: 1.45em; height: 31px; line-height: 31px; margin: 0px 19px 0px -50px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; width: 31px;">
6</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Get plenty of sleep</b>. Studies have shows that those who sleep less tend to weigh more.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-16.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 16.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/5/5c/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-16.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-16.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
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<a href="" name="Remember_Good_Hygiene" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></a></div>
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Remember Good Hygiene</span></h3>
<ol class="steps_list_2" style="color: #414141; list-style: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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1</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Shower every other day</b>. Shower again if you have performed an activity that has made you sweat.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-17.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 17.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad2.whstatic.com/images/thumb/2/23/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-17.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-17.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
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</div>
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</div>
</li>
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2</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Brush and floss your teeth daily</b>. Regular flossing not only prevents gum disease but also prevents heart disease.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-18.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 18.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="354" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/a/af/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-18.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-18.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
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</div>
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</div>
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3</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Clean your feet</b>. Make sure to scrub between your toes to prevent athlete's foot and unpleasant odors.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-19.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 19.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/f/f7/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-19.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-19.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
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</div>
</div>
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</div>
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4</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Always wear clean clothes</b>. In particular, always change your underwear and socks once daily.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-20.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 20.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/2/20/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-20.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-20.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
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</div>
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</div>
</div>
<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
</div>
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<li class="steps_li final_li" style="border: 0px; clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 20px 20px 20px 80px;"><div class="step_num" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/header.png); background-position: -220px -80px; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; clear: right; color: white; float: left; font-size: 1.45em; height: 31px; line-height: 31px; margin: 0px 19px 0px -50px; padding: 0px; text-align: center; width: 31px;">
5</div>
<b class="whb" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Wear antiperspirant</b>. Wearing antiperspirant will prevent odor and will keep your shirts from being stained with perspiration.<br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /><div class="mwimg" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="floatcenter" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="rounders" style="height: 368px; margin: 0px 0px 0.8em; padding: 0px; position: relative; width: 550px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><a class="image" href="http://www.wikihow.com/Image:Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-21.jpg" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live a Healthy Lifestyle Step 21.jpg"><img alt="" border="0" class="mwimage101" height="368" src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/b/be/Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-21.jpg/550px-Live-a-Healthy-Lifestyle-Step-21.jpg" style="border: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" width="550" /></a></span><div class="corner top_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -10px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner top_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -10px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; top: 0px; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_left" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -10px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; width: 10px;">
</div>
<div class="corner bottom_right" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: -20px -20px; bottom: 0px; height: 10px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; right: 0px; width: 10px;">
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<div class="clearall" style="clear: both; height: 0px; line-height: 0; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
</div>
<div class="wh_ad" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<div class="wh_ad_inner adunit1" style="margin: 0px 0px 0px -5px; padding: 0px;">
<ins style="border: none; display: inline-table; height: 180px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; visibility: visible; width: 468px;"><ins id="aswift_1_anchor" style="border: none; display: block; height: 180px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; visibility: visible; width: 468px;"><iframe allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="180" hspace="0" id="aswift_1" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" name="aswift_1" scrolling="no" style="border-style: none; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px;" vspace="0" width="468"></iframe></ins></ins></div>
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<a href="" name="Tips" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></a></div>
</div>
<h2 style="background-image: url(http://pad2.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/module_caps.png); background-position: 0px -92px; clear: both; color: #4a3c31; font-size: 1.45em; height: 53px; line-height: 42px; margin: 0px 0px 10px -20px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 40px; position: relative; width: 647px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Tips</span></h2>
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<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/gif; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 1em 1em;">
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 1em 0px 0px;">Take a multivitamin to ensure that you are taking in adequate vitamins and minerals.</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 1em 0px 0px;">Frequent and routine exercise everyday will boost your immune system. Also, exercise helps to prevent “diseases of affluence” such as heart disease, cancer, diabetes and obesity. Additionally, physical activity also improves your mental outlook and may prevent depression.</li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0px 0px 1em;">
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<div class="wh_ad_inner adunit2a" style="margin: 0px 0px 0px 20px; padding: 0px;">
<ins style="border: none; display: inline-table; height: 180px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; visibility: visible; width: 468px;"><ins id="aswift_2_anchor" style="border: none; display: block; height: 180px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: relative; visibility: visible; width: 468px;"><iframe allowtransparency="true" frameborder="0" height="180" hspace="0" id="aswift_2" marginheight="0" marginwidth="0" name="aswift_2" scrolling="no" style="border-style: none; left: 0px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; position: absolute; top: 0px;" vspace="0" width="468"></iframe></ins></ins></div>
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<h2 style="background-image: url(http://pad2.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/module_caps.png); background-position: 0px -92px; clear: both; color: #4a3c31; font-size: 1.45em; height: 53px; line-height: 42px; margin: 0px 0px 10px -20px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 40px; position: relative; width: 647px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">This </span></h2>
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<center style="margin: 25px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">
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<div style="line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0px 0px 1em;">
<span class="template" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></span></div>
<center style="margin: 25px 0px 0px; padding: 0px;">
<table style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px; width: 375pxpx;"><tbody style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<tr style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><td style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><br style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;" /></td><td align="left" style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</center>
<div style="line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0px 0px 1em;">
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</div>
</center>
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Warnings</span></h2>
<div class="article_inner editable" id="warnings" style="color: #414141; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 27px 20px 23px;">
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/gif; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 1em 1em;">
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 1em 0px 0px;">Always discuss big changes to your diet and exercise routines with a doctor before you get started.</li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0px 0px 1em;">
<a href="" name="Things_You.27ll_Need" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"></a></div>
</div>
<h2 style="background-image: url(http://pad2.whstatic.com/skins/WikiHow/images/module_caps.png); background-position: 0px -92px; clear: both; color: #4a3c31; font-size: 1.45em; height: 53px; line-height: 42px; margin: 0px 0px 10px -20px; padding: 0px 0px 0px 40px; position: relative; width: 647px;">
<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Things You'll Need</span></h2>
<div class="article_inner editable" id="thingsyoullneed" style="color: #414141; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 27px 20px 23px;">
<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/gif; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 1em 1em;">
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">Healthy foods including fruits, vegetables, lean proteins, whole grains and low-fat dairy</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">Moderate exercise</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">Plenty of sleep</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">A scale for tracking your weight</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">A daily shower</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">Toothbrush and toothpaste</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">Dental floss</li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;">Antiperspirant</li>
</ul>
<div style="line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0px 0px 1em;">
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Related wikiHows</span></h2>
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<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a href="http://www.wikihow.com/Motivate-Yourself-to-Lose-Weight" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Motivate Yourself to Lose Weight">How to Motivate Yourself to Lose Weight</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a href="http://www.wikihow.com/Go-on-a-Raw-Food-Diet" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Go on a Raw Food Diet">How to Go on a Raw Food Diet</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a href="http://www.wikihow.com/Avoid-Feeling-Drowsy-After-Lunch" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Avoid Feeling Drowsy After Lunch">How to Avoid Feeling Drowsy After Lunch</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a href="http://www.wikihow.com/Get-More-Magnesium" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Get More Magnesium">How to Get More Magnesium</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a href="http://www.wikihow.com/Live-an-Organic-Lifestyle" style="color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="Live an Organic Lifestyle">How to Live an Organic Lifestyle</a></li>
</ul>
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<span style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">Sources and Citations</span></h2>
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<ul style="list-style-image: url(data:image/gif; list-style-position: outside; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 1em 1em;">
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.diabetes.org/food-and-fitness/fitness/ideas-for-exercise/" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/common/images/external.png); background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 13px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="http://www.diabetes.org/food-and-fitness/fitness/ideas-for-exercise/">American Diabetes Association: Ideas for Exercise</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.choosemyplate.gov/" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/common/images/external.png); background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 13px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="http://www.choosemyplate.gov/">ChooseMyPlate.gov</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=21745" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/common/images/external.png); background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 13px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=21745">Facts About Yo-Yo Dieting</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.rush.edu/rumc/page-1108048103230.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/common/images/external.png); background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 13px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="http://www.rush.edu/rumc/page-1108048103230.html">What is a Healthy Weight?</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/lose-weight-while-sleeping" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/common/images/external.png); background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 13px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/guide/lose-weight-while-sleeping">The Dream Diet: Losing Weight While You Sleep</a></li>
<li style="clear: both; margin: 0px; padding: 4px 0px 0px;"><a class="external text" href="http://articles.cnn.com/2007-03-23/health/chasinglife.livingto100_1_life-expectancy-family-history-gum-disease?_s=PM:HEALTH" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(http://pad1.whstatic.com/skins/common/images/external.png); background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #336633; margin: 0px; padding: 0px 13px 0px 0px; text-decoration: none;" title="http://articles.cnn.com/2007-03-23/health/chasinglife.livingto100_1_life-expectancy-family-history-gum-disease?_s=PM:HEALTH">The Secret of Living to 100</a></li>
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Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-68913973648572505782010-03-11T09:32:00.001-08:002010-03-11T09:32:47.105-08:00top 5oo websites according to opularity by sunil bewalTop Sites: The 500 Most Important Domains on the Internet<br />
Last Updated February, 2010<br />
The table below contains a list of the top 500 registered domains (∗.example.com) ranked by the number of linking root domains. This data is sourced from the Linkscape Web index of 69+ million domains and 43+ billion pages.<br />
<br />
Download the Top 500 Domains as a CSV<br />
Top 500 Domains Top 500 PagesRank Root Domain Linking Root<br />
Domains External<br />
Links Domain<br />
mozRank Domain<br />
mozTrust PageRank Change <br />
1 Google.com 2,661,287 436,650,052 9.52 9.49 10 0 <br />
2 Adobe.com 2,164,442 137,104,522 9.74 9.56 9 0 <br />
3 Blogspot.com 1,636,252 651,890,656 8.90 8.82 8 0 <br />
4 Yahoo.com 1,557,944 233,918,258 8.98 8.91 9 0 <br />
5 Youtube.com 1,394,622 139,239,943 8.97 8.92 9 0 <br />
6 Facebook.com 1,283,732 277,164,513 9.15 9.10 9 +2 <br />
7 Wikipedia.org 1,277,349 127,447,390 8.79 8.74 9 -1 <br />
8 W3.org 1,066,533 300,591,807 8.97 9.15 10 -1 <br />
9 Wordpress.org 1,025,722 118,161,020 8.68 8.56 9 0 <br />
10 Twitter.com 993,137 365,491,027 9.07 9.07 9 +2 <br />
11 Myspace.com 926,350 124,341,754 8.80 8.63 9 -1 <br />
12 Wordpress.com 740,685 150,929,214 8.45 8.43 9 +3 <br />
13 Microsoft.com 711,390 61,956,599 9.01 9.24 9 -2 <br />
14 Amazon.com 711,238 175,681,628 8.65 8.71 9 -1 <br />
15 Macromedia.com 635,555 25,973,305 9.18 8.97 9 -1 <br />
16 Flickr.com 589,828 129,410,315 8.47 8.55 9 0 <br />
17 Msn.com 523,996 51,420,868 8.25 8.31 8 +2 <br />
18 Miibeian.gov.cn 508,510 131,174,578 8.64 7.89 10 0 <br />
19 Apple.com 501,207 39,199,172 8.72 9.11 9 +1 <br />
20 Statcounter.com 501,096 113,293,879 8.80 8.59 8 -3 <br />
21 Godaddy.com 471,595 2,202,309 7.75 7.48 7 +318 <br />
22 Digg.com 424,337 86,360,645 8.13 8.13 8 +14 <br />
23 Bbc.co.uk 418,380 24,086,743 8.22 8.98 9 -2 <br />
24 Feedburner.com 401,462 147,468,542 8.19 8.55 8 +2 <br />
25 Aol.com 385,729 62,563,586 8.09 8.97 8 -3 <br />
26 Icio.us 365,827 88,411,140 8.10 8.09 8 +12 <br />
27 Addthis.com 365,141 152,306,634 8.76 8.68 10 +6 <br />
28 Sourceforge.net 357,589 64,437,987 8.32 9.02 9 -4 <br />
29 Nytimes.com 356,453 24,952,608 8.14 9.00 9 -4 <br />
30 Technorati.com 337,312 118,324,919 7.90 7.88 8 +7 <br />
31 Cnn.com 331,053 21,986,273 8.07 8.25 10 -4 <br />
32 Mapquest.com 326,304 21,668,836 8.56 8.53 8 -9 <br />
33 Free.fr 316,341 25,295,695 8.03 7.92 7 -5 <br />
34 Tripod.com 301,657 17,430,249 7.83 7.93 7 -5 <br />
35 Live.com 299,015 27,455,072 7.92 7.89 8 -5 <br />
36 Go.com 293,840 21,582,833 8.07 8.22 8 -4 <br />
37 Yahoo.co.jp 284,871 47,467,162 8.47 7.90 8 -6 <br />
38 Typepad.com 284,083 62,887,014 8.02 8.11 8 -4 <br />
39 Linkedin.com 270,033 21,101,750 8.22 8.28 9 +16 <br />
40 Stumbleupon.com 266,079 51,454,183 7.89 7.87 8 +48 <br />
41 Ebay.com 263,287 27,404,184 8.08 8.08 8 +2 <br />
42 Phpbb.com 251,379 159,383,717 8.18 8.00 8 -7 <br />
43 Blogger.com 251,140 341,680,677 7.93 7.88 8 +2 <br />
44 Imdb.com 249,438 19,650,142 7.80 7.90 8 -3 <br />
45 Qq.com 241,507 70,648,395 8.05 7.30 8 -5 <br />
46 Php.net 241,318 56,831,747 8.04 8.93 7 -7 <br />
47 About.com 240,949 6,468,013 7.85 8.01 8 -5 <br />
48 Rambler.ru 229,999 113,685,160 8.41 7.87 8 -4 <br />
49 Fc2.com 223,918 51,204,170 8.12 7.54 6 -2 <br />
50 Livejournal.com 221,242 25,678,241 7.70 7.71 8 +6 <br />
51 Baidu.com 220,476 25,450,021 7.97 7.30 9 -5 <br />
52 Tinyurl.com 215,357 10,866,323 7.86 7.98 5 +19 <br />
53 Google.de 215,039 22,011,772 8.13 7.67 8 -4 <br />
54 Joomla.org 213,457 26,285,362 8.20 7.92 9 -6 <br />
55 Reddit.com 208,315 39,166,360 7.75 7.79 8 +68 <br />
56 Photobucket.com 205,791 20,622,955 7.77 7.69 7 +5 <br />
57 Cnet.com 204,090 26,929,381 7.84 7.98 9 -3 <br />
58 Creativecommons.org 202,164 54,163,038 8.00 8.95 9 -8 <br />
59 Mail.ru 201,421 88,718,974 8.25 7.69 8 -7 <br />
60 Guardian.co.uk 193,186 9,785,983 7.81 7.97 9 -1 <br />
61 Vimeo.com 191,936 7,920,366 7.91 7.92 8 +19 <br />
62 Nih.gov 187,746 40,007,225 8.05 9.02 9 -11 <br />
63 Icq.com 186,959 58,320,612 7.89 7.57 7 -5 <br />
64 Google.co.jp 186,542 16,275,356 8.39 7.81 8 -7 <br />
65 Imageshack.us 182,712 20,450,062 7.52 7.44 7 +20 <br />
66 Washingtonpost.com 180,847 9,648,760 7.80 8.11 8 -3 <br />
67 Angelfire.com 180,416 9,078,451 7.52 7.68 7 -5 <br />
68 Mac.com 179,860 4,003,498 7.96 7.94 8 -1 <br />
69 Ocn.ne.jp 173,828 6,161,072 8.04 7.52 7 -9 <br />
70 Homestead.com 173,248 2,656,108 7.93 7.79 7 -4 <br />
71 Nifty.com 171,600 11,250,643 7.92 7.47 7 New <br />
72 Sina.com.cn 171,048 19,616,543 7.69 7.27 8 -7 <br />
73 Alibaba.com 170,126 14,295,300 8.08 7.05 7 +31 <br />
74 Gnu.org 169,810 13,955,059 8.05 8.97 8 -4 <br />
75 Peopleconnectionblog.com 169,679 1,847,675 5.83 6.13 7 -22 <br />
76 Netscape.com 169,332 8,295,065 8.20 8.26 8 -4 <br />
77 Reuters.com 168,688 9,953,240 7.75 7.96 8 -2 <br />
78 Europa.eu 168,372 12,041,625 8.10 8.14 9 -10 <br />
79 Usatoday.com 167,531 7,545,832 7.78 8.03 5 -10 <br />
80 Gc.ca 167,408 9,569,839 8.06 8.20 8 -16 <br />
81 Gmpg.org 165,105 8,408,925 7.83 7.70 8 -8 <br />
82 Wsj.com 164,280 10,114,841 7.79 8.00 8 -6 <br />
83 Rakuten.co.jp 163,607 52,882,996 8.06 7.47 7 -2 <br />
84 Google.co.uk 163,280 6,458,705 8.20 8.93 8 -10 <br />
85 Freewebs.com 162,999 6,169,004 7.61 7.54 7 -8 <br />
86 Information.com 162,180 2,685,257 8.42 8.26 5 +15 <br />
87 Nasa.gov 155,372 5,752,099 7.73 8.95 9 -9 <br />
88 Co.cc 151,371 19,137,409 7.18 7.10 6 +82 <br />
89 Mysql.com 151,330 60,502,921 7.84 8.91 9 -6 <br />
90 Bloglines.com 149,712 22,608,932 7.71 7.80 9 +21 <br />
91 Mit.edu 149,601 10,832,100 7.65 8.08 9 -7 <br />
92 Mozilla.com 149,356 8,177,828 8.03 8.06 9 -3 <br />
93 Yandex.ru 148,242 41,376,074 8.12 7.62 8 +1 <br />
94 Infoseek.co.jp 148,239 9,102,731 7.81 7.35 7 -8 <br />
95 Geocities.jp 146,429 8,853,852 7.78 7.32 7 -16 <br />
96 Ning.com 142,458 13,711,571 7.68 7.72 8 +50 <br />
97 Narod.ru 142,443 8,814,198 7.47 7.26 7 +10 <br />
98 Weather.com 139,950 7,663,385 7.86 7.91 9 -11 <br />
99 Bing.com 137,628 11,320,322 7.42 7.35 8 +20 <br />
100 Sitemeter.com 136,725 30,618,074 8.05 7.90 7 -18 <br />
101 Cdc.gov 136,702 3,116,262 7.94 8.22 9 -11 <br />
102 Archive.org 136,600 7,608,430 7.64 7.83 7 +4 <br />
103 Wired.com 136,165 6,420,584 7.60 7.89 9 0 <br />
104 Stanford.edu 135,772 7,422,456 7.66 8.95 9 -11 <br />
105 Harvard.edu 135,038 4,369,630 7.71 8.95 9 -14 <br />
106 Clickbank.net 135,002 18,825,412 7.76 7.48 5 +30 <br />
107 Dailymotion.com 133,819 6,446,521 7.54 7.46 7 +31 <br />
108 Latimes.com 132,751 6,173,614 7.63 7.89 8 +1 <br />
109 Ibm.com 131,055 9,348,192 7.86 8.95 8 -9 <br />
110 Timesonline.co.uk 130,700 3,207,319 7.58 7.74 5 +2 <br />
111 Berkeley.edu 129,770 6,273,879 7.58 8.93 9 -13 <br />
112 Biglobe.ne.jp 128,100 7,934,768 7.73 7.33 7 -20 <br />
113 Xrea.com 127,351 29,240,401 8.14 7.64 7 -8 <br />
114 Loc.gov 127,112 4,212,277 7.76 8.96 9 -17 <br />
115 Telegraph.co.uk 126,218 3,845,032 7.55 7.69 8 +9 <br />
116 Noaa.gov 125,597 6,379,642 7.79 8.95 9 -20 <br />
117 Ca.gov 125,518 3,772,925 7.87 8.23 8 -22 <br />
118 Amazon.de 124,885 32,689,262 7.82 7.61 8 -10 <br />
119 Bit.ly 123,135 12,127,497 7.73 7.82 7 +275 <br />
120 Deviantart.com 122,782 8,263,240 7.44 7.39 7 +23 <br />
121 Amazon.co.uk 122,594 17,619,411 7.80 7.84 8 -5 <br />
122 Taobao.com 122,356 21,287,257 7.51 6.86 7 +33 <br />
123 Ameblo.jp 122,293 14,315,004 8.08 7.48 7 +8 <br />
124 Googlepages.com 121,476 2,940,765 7.48 7.66 6 +1 <br />
125 Altavista.com 120,771 7,772,462 7.51 7.62 9 -23 <br />
126 163.com 120,617 8,462,555 7.46 7.04 8 -16 <br />
127 Wunderground.com 120,607 8,638,327 7.78 7.79 5 -28 <br />
128 Pbs.org 119,861 2,949,904 7.58 8.92 8 -15 <br />
129 Spb.ru 118,952 5,289,245 7.40 7.21 6 +12 <br />
130 Goo.ne.jp 118,759 11,655,538 7.75 7.25 8 -2 <br />
131 Furl.net 118,454 20,639,600 7.34 7.32 5 +93 <br />
132 Time.com 116,273 3,040,259 7.53 7.80 8 +2 <br />
133 Sakura.ne.jp 114,493 9,930,740 7.66 7.17 6 -7 <br />
134 Opera.com 113,697 4,560,558 7.71 7.82 9 +15 <br />
135 51.la 113,465 34,636,200 7.99 7.34 5 -15 <br />
136 Mozilla.org 113,371 6,053,234 7.90 8.94 9 -21 <br />
137 Uk.com 113,332 5,433,092 7.79 7.65 4 0 <br />
138 Cafepress.com 112,925 27,011,685 7.78 7.83 7 -21 <br />
139 Slashdot.org 112,686 9,035,185 7.37 8.91 9 +40 <br />
140 Cornell.edu 112,660 3,267,426 7.63 8.94 9 -26 <br />
141 Delicious.com 112,363 14,802,051 8.02 8.00 8 +202 <br />
142 Diigo.com 111,661 14,866,676 7.44 7.38 7 +334 <br />
143 Sohu.com 110,793 8,879,253 7.41 7.03 8 -25 <br />
144 Sun.com 110,752 10,044,757 7.94 8.96 8 -15 <br />
145 Tumblr.com 110,572 14,836,669 7.47 7.46 7 +92 <br />
146 Constantcontact.com 110,286 13,215,274 8.18 8.21 8 -24 <br />
147 Whitehouse.gov 110,174 2,876,413 7.71 8.15 9 -5 <br />
148 Boston.com 110,166 4,242,801 7.53 7.80 8 0 <br />
149 Forbes.com 109,244 3,250,918 7.66 7.88 5 +3 <br />
150 Google.fr 108,902 15,806,800 7.87 7.57 8 -10 <br />
151 Apache.org 108,749 6,024,772 8.01 8.13 9 -24 <br />
152 Com.com 108,628 17,482,477 7.69 7.84 9 -19 <br />
153 Newsgator.com 107,885 12,863,029 7.61 7.68 9 +12 <br />
154 Hp.com 107,284 6,014,903 7.79 8.94 9 -10 <br />
155 Amazon.co.jp 106,967 80,193,180 7.83 7.41 8 -23 <br />
156 Dmoz.org 104,799 30,529,002 7.53 7.64 8 -26 <br />
157 Real.com 103,626 5,513,379 8.02 8.18 9 -36 <br />
158 Squidoo.com 102,437 5,661,594 7.16 7.14 8 +86 <br />
159 Sfgate.com 101,465 5,184,666 7.51 7.81 7 -2 <br />
160 Webs.com 100,979 2,931,586 7.35 7.31 7 +80 <br />
161 Last.fm 100,783 26,218,683 7.42 7.45 9 +8 <br />
162 Parallels.com 100,712 12,049,526 8.16 7.84 9 +23 <br />
163 Shinystat.com 100,605 12,865,074 7.99 7.46 7 -28 <br />
164 Businessweek.com 99,871 2,729,042 7.59 7.87 8 -3 <br />
165 Umich.edu 99,832 2,159,902 7.49 8.93 7 -18 <br />
166 Eu.int 99,745 3,616,728 7.84 7.93 9 -27 <br />
167 Epa.gov 99,246 2,182,262 7.82 8.96 9 -22 <br />
168 Foxnews.com 99,140 2,962,872 7.31 7.53 8 +5 <br />
169 Nationalgeographic.com 99,052 2,118,795 7.46 7.73 8 -6 <br />
170 Nps.gov 96,779 1,803,585 7.62 7.96 9 -20 <br />
171 House.gov 96,706 2,478,310 7.62 8.95 9 -20 <br />
172 Cjb.net 96,302 1,486,641 7.16 7.28 7 -6 <br />
173 Dion.ne.jp 96,219 2,518,297 7.60 7.13 6 -20 <br />
174 Seesaa.net 95,217 14,599,170 7.56 7.01 6 -7 <br />
175 Newsvine.com 92,948 14,176,717 7.23 7.33 7 +247 <br />
176 Ezinearticles.com 92,878 3,773,103 7.26 7.22 6 +37 <br />
177 Earthlink.net 92,550 1,619,008 7.45 7.67 7 -18 <br />
178 Lycos.com 91,771 2,865,667 7.42 7.60 8 -22 <br />
179 Wikimedia.org 90,923 2,710,668 7.22 7.35 7 +55 <br />
180 Bloomberg.com 90,649 3,404,646 7.45 7.65 8 +8 <br />
181 Senate.gov 89,353 2,116,693 7.55 8.93 9 -9 <br />
182 Usda.gov 89,098 2,626,319 7.75 8.95 9 -22 <br />
183 Rapidshare.com 89,089 10,736,085 7.13 7.02 6 +62 <br />
184 Utexas.edu 89,071 1,743,381 7.41 8.92 8 -22 <br />
185 Altervista.org 87,854 5,361,133 7.14 7.02 6 +22 <br />
186 Paypal.com 87,652 3,353,099 7.91 7.83 8 -22 <br />
187 Multimap.com 87,424 3,867,507 7.95 7.71 8 -29 <br />
188 Discovery.com 87,283 4,754,823 7.39 7.65 8 +6 <br />
189 So-net.ne.jp 87,279 3,929,588 7.55 7.14 7 -9 <br />
190 Un.org 86,800 2,769,864 7.63 7.91 9 -6 <br />
191 Google.it 86,754 5,337,124 7.76 7.37 8 -1 <br />
192 Blogs.com 86,587 9,879,112 7.30 7.50 7 0 <br />
193 Who.int 86,495 1,572,801 7.73 8.93 9 -7 <br />
194 Demon.co.uk 86,335 867,461 7.38 7.61 6 -23 <br />
195 Washington.edu 86,013 1,389,141 7.47 8.93 8 -20 <br />
196 T-online.de 85,932 2,885,983 7.45 7.27 7 +2 <br />
197 Quantcast.com 85,607 71,571,591 7.93 7.91 7 -16 <br />
198 Uiuc.edu 85,601 1,690,357 7.44 7.90 8 -30 <br />
199 Zdnet.com 85,545 7,990,904 7.53 7.80 9 -16 <br />
200 Upenn.edu 84,458 1,620,068 7.42 8.92 9 -24 <br />
201 Plala.or.jp 84,417 2,201,866 7.55 7.08 6 -27 <br />
202 Cbsnews.com 84,093 5,084,584 7.46 7.74 9 0 <br />
203 Xinhuanet.com 83,825 4,053,216 7.28 7.25 9 -25 <br />
204 Wisc.edu 82,625 2,466,754 7.48 8.93 8 -27 <br />
205 Barnesandnoble.com 82,360 3,375,138 7.55 8.92 8 -8 <br />
206 State.gov 82,336 2,280,957 7.68 8.94 8 -19 <br />
207 Comcast.net 82,204 1,962,444 7.37 7.60 7 -3 <br />
208 Wanadoo.fr 81,581 2,124,791 7.55 7.49 7 -26 <br />
209 Spiegel.de 81,552 4,313,243 7.22 7.27 8 +2 <br />
210 Independent.co.uk 81,025 2,311,493 7.31 7.49 9 +10 <br />
211 Netfirms.com 80,870 2,501,353 7.34 7.26 7 +12 <br />
212 Cbc.ca 80,160 1,931,647 7.32 8.90 8 -9 <br />
213 Columbia.edu 80,034 2,188,728 7.41 8.92 8 -22 <br />
214 Umn.edu 79,694 1,427,413 7.45 8.92 8 -25 <br />
215 Ft.com 79,605 2,641,157 7.48 7.68 8 -1 <br />
216 Nwsource.com 79,584 3,247,094 7.37 7.64 6 -15 <br />
217 Opensource.org 79,480 630,431 7.63 8.91 8 -18 <br />
218 Fda.gov 79,402 2,031,718 7.72 7.94 9 -22 <br />
219 Blinklist.com 79,096 10,832,096 7.04 7.06 7 +254 <br />
220 Skype.com 77,999 1,874,540 7.43 7.38 8 -12 <br />
221 Huffingtonpost.com 77,655 5,705,288 7.33 7.65 8 +37 <br />
222 Ed.gov 77,604 2,264,205 7.62 8.00 9 -27 <br />
223 Dailymail.co.uk 77,445 1,761,375 7.25 7.38 7 +33 <br />
224 Hotlog.ru 77,434 33,309,247 7.90 7.37 5 -31 <br />
225 Google.ca 77,333 2,703,921 7.70 7.64 8 +1 <br />
226 News.com.au 76,351 2,974,481 7.26 7.42 8 -9 <br />
227 Simplemachines.org 75,704 90,467,613 7.48 7.31 8 -22 <br />
228 Liveinternet.ru 75,631 44,594,018 7.98 7.44 9 +25 <br />
229 Netvibes.com 74,877 11,497,988 7.34 7.39 9 +56 <br />
230 Irs.gov 74,491 985,767 7.70 7.95 8 -18 <br />
231 Google.es 74,463 6,801,327 7.58 7.25 7 +19 <br />
232 Exblog.jp 74,245 8,132,835 7.68 7.12 7 +4 <br />
233 Census.gov 74,009 2,035,604 7.54 7.96 8 -15 <br />
234 Intel.com 73,922 3,538,577 7.59 8.92 8 +7 <br />
235 Bizjournals.com 73,878 1,452,134 7.65 7.87 5 -5 <br />
236 Symantec.com 73,823 2,806,708 7.72 7.86 8 -27 <br />
237 Freehostia.com 73,754 11,131,246 6.80 6.76 5 +140 <br />
238 Chicagotribune.com 73,580 3,376,663 7.32 7.59 8 +4 <br />
239 Ftc.gov 73,443 843,129 7.91 8.04 8 -39 <br />
240 Google.cn 73,362 7,214,642 7.32 6.87 8 -12 <br />
241 Ask.com 73,332 5,962,688 7.29 7.43 8 +19 <br />
242 Alexa.com 72,914 6,593,748 7.29 7.24 7 +23 <br />
243 Virginia.edu 72,851 3,167,324 7.31 8.91 8 -37 <br />
244 Me.com 72,739 1,212,702 7.74 7.65 8 +108 <br />
245 Doubleclick.net 72,148 229,470,344 8.05 8.10 8 +4 <br />
246 Google.nl 72,094 3,176,191 7.65 7.20 7 -8 <br />
247 Yale.edu 72,012 13,117,265 7.33 8.91 9 -28 <br />
248 Engadget.com 71,714 14,712,853 7.20 7.37 8 +19 <br />
249 Ucla.edu 71,653 5,468,527 7.34 7.81 8 -33 <br />
250 Abc.net.au 71,612 2,809,575 7.25 7.44 8 -3 <br />
251 Cdbaby.com 70,894 1,893,486 7.59 7.53 7 -41 <br />
252 Weebly.com 70,829 1,627,545 7.25 7.17 8 +206 <br />
253 Usgs.gov 70,290 2,203,933 7.49 7.93 8 -24 <br />
254 Cmu.edu 70,072 1,058,665 7.33 8.91 8 -32 <br />
255 Jugem.jp 69,898 17,618,108 7.54 6.94 7 +33 <br />
256 Warnerbros.com 69,789 1,175,506 7.60 7.70 7 +1 <br />
257 Officelive.com 69,597 1,414,501 7.72 7.63 8 +45 <br />
258 Download.com 69,045 2,449,454 7.56 7.62 8 -25 <br />
259 Tradedoubler.com 68,851 18,504,222 7.59 7.28 7 -27 <br />
260 Extremetracking.com 68,455 13,204,404 7.75 7.50 7 -45 <br />
261 Etsy.com 68,279 5,664,868 7.33 7.26 7 +57 <br />
262 Lolipop.jp 68,090 6,774,409 7.20 6.58 6 +178 <br />
263 Hatena.ne.jp 67,975 21,176,565 7.42 7.06 7 +5 <br />
264 People.com.cn 67,928 3,556,994 7.20 7.11 9 -18 <br />
265 Oracle.com 67,442 2,942,937 7.61 8.93 8 +67 <br />
266 Java.com 66,881 1,582,499 7.90 8.92 8 -23 <br />
267 Answers.com 66,691 1,728,868 7.19 7.36 8 +36 <br />
268 Propeller.com 66,408 5,044,573 6.19 6.32 7 +204 <br />
269 Psu.edu 66,387 34,914,372 7.33 8.92 8 -30 <br />
270 Bravenet.com 65,958 4,957,636 7.42 7.33 8 -49 <br />
271 Att.net 65,853 1,166,979 7.15 7.42 6 -19 <br />
272 Xe.com 65,705 3,221,768 7.52 7.49 8 -37 <br />
273 Openoffice.org 65,621 1,256,481 7.28 7.62 8 -11 <br />
274 Techcrunch.com 65,620 3,861,554 7.35 7.48 7 +34 <br />
275 Howstuffworks.com 65,299 1,140,696 7.19 7.45 8 -1 <br />
276 110mb.com 65,229 2,899,543 6.84 6.81 7 +154 <br />
277 Mixx.com 65,027 4,032,934 6.65 6.78 8 +678 <br />
278 Cocolog-nifty.com 64,687 7,459,138 7.42 6.94 7 +16 <br />
279 Nbc.com 64,594 7,507,784 7.04 7.26 8 +38 <br />
280 Economist.com 64,535 1,656,807 7.23 8.90 8 +6 <br />
281 Webring.com 64,443 4,784,743 7.39 7.34 6 -50 <br />
282 Addtoany.com 64,324 10,919,198 7.56 7.49 8 +136 <br />
283 State.tx.us 64,292 2,648,772 7.52 8.01 7 -32 <br />
284 Over-blog.com 64,288 16,647,144 7.14 7.00 7 +6 <br />
285 Craigslist.org 64,275 2,161,352 7.05 7.24 7 +36 <br />
286 Shinobi.jp 64,169 10,008,493 7.76 7.36 6 -27 <br />
287 Dyndns.org 64,137 2,437,167 7.20 7.27 6 +47 <br />
288 Fortunecity.com 63,897 2,097,537 6.94 7.18 7 -17 <br />
289 Unc.edu 63,610 4,096,335 7.32 7.80 8 -41 <br />
290 Mtv.com 63,581 3,137,018 7.25 7.39 7 +8 <br />
291 Bbb.org 63,319 4,902,308 7.79 7.80 8 -18 <br />
292 Gizmodo.com 63,018 4,168,352 7.06 7.27 8 +24 <br />
293 Salon.com 62,991 2,850,885 7.07 7.42 8 -24 <br />
294 Spylog.com 62,970 34,021,492 7.76 7.32 7 -67 <br />
295 Canada.com 62,695 5,816,011 7.18 7.39 8 -23 <br />
296 Dell.com 62,629 1,615,046 7.45 7.67 8 -5 <br />
297 Histats.com 62,563 11,249,855 7.66 7.25 6 -5 <br />
298 Xs4all.nl 62,478 1,826,212 7.21 7.39 8 -28 <br />
299 Msu.edu 62,368 3,052,650 7.24 8.91 8 -33 <br />
300 Ifrance.com 62,049 5,347,958 6.87 6.93 6 +46 <br />
301 Indiana.edu 61,714 2,709,383 7.22 8.91 9 -46 <br />
302 Lycos.fr 61,695 2,889,445 6.99 7.07 7 -21 <br />
303 Iht.com 61,519 957,548 7.13 7.46 9 -26 <br />
304 Smh.com.au 61,466 4,001,874 7.15 7.35 8 -8 <br />
305 Si.edu 61,307 908,664 7.38 8.91 8 -42 <br />
306 Ign.com 60,904 8,191,416 7.07 7.17 7 +27 <br />
307 Drupal.org 60,635 9,726,271 7.62 7.66 9 +7 <br />
308 Startpagina.nl 60,595 2,271,980 6.96 6.54 7 -33 <br />
309 Bravehost.com 60,394 2,203,153 6.87 6.92 7 +21 <br />
310 Ufl.edu 60,291 15,124,913 7.25 7.72 8 -49 <br />
311 Scribd.com 59,944 2,000,714 7.11 7.30 7 +148 <br />
312 Unesco.org 59,922 1,923,757 7.41 8.91 9 -23 <br />
313 Tinypic.com 59,820 2,212,425 7.33 7.25 7 +131 <br />
314 Uchicago.edu 59,780 1,300,157 7.24 7.74 8 -38 <br />
315 A8.net 59,277 27,565,242 7.65 7.04 6 -33 <br />
316 Slideshare.net 59,123 2,804,130 7.30 7.47 7 +67 <br />
317 Usdoj.gov 58,908 2,564,226 7.65 8.06 8 -53 <br />
318 Purdue.edu 58,877 3,387,481 7.26 7.70 8 -38 <br />
319 Examiner.com 58,716 1,833,340 7.25 7.46 7 +112 <br />
320 Map24.com 58,133 1,685,820 7.57 7.14 8 -37 <br />
321 Nyu.edu 57,904 22,611,084 7.24 7.71 8 -42 <br />
322 Arizona.edu 57,903 3,606,328 7.22 8.91 8 -44 <br />
323 Geocities.co.jp 57,879 1,671,645 7.26 6.94 7 -39 <br />
324 Ccbill.com 57,789 15,454,610 7.42 6.79 6 -11 <br />
325 Ucoz.ru 57,753 8,497,966 7.15 6.61 7 +137 <br />
326 Marriott.com 57,732 1,717,134 7.75 7.98 8 -25 <br />
327 Princeton.edu 57,630 1,383,965 7.24 8.91 8 -32 <br />
328 Heise.de 57,559 3,168,292 7.26 7.25 8 -8 <br />
329 Marketwatch.com 57,557 4,151,721 7.38 7.63 7 0 <br />
330 Umd.edu 57,358 1,176,329 7.25 8.91 8 -31 <br />
331 Webmd.com 57,156 2,160,228 7.25 7.42 8 +4 <br />
332 Findarticles.com 57,052 6,701,626 7.17 7.44 9 +5 <br />
333 Xanga.com 56,937 6,382,533 6.84 6.95 7 +48 <br />
334 Newscientist.com 56,849 1,257,691 7.21 7.56 8 +2 <br />
335 Nba.com 56,765 3,993,137 7.19 7.34 7 -8 <br />
336 Mozilla-europe.org 56,724 3,935,544 7.47 7.28 7 -5 <br />
337 Wikia.com 56,664 3,454,863 6.94 7.12 6 +79 <br />
338 Surveymonkey.com 56,498 2,358,433 7.77 7.96 8 +2 <br />
339 Internet.com 56,323 12,171,662 7.31 7.51 7 +8 <br />
340 Multiply.com 56,259 2,900,804 6.89 6.90 7 +85 <br />
341 Cam.ac.uk 56,194 1,432,247 7.31 8.91 9 -34 <br />
342 Pcworld.com 56,087 2,151,071 7.33 7.62 5 -1 <br />
343 Extreme-dm.com 56,082 6,205,133 7.71 7.59 7 -89 <br />
344 4.cn 55,956 627,578 7.91 6.69 7 New <br />
345 Metacafe.com 55,819 1,019,490 6.98 7.01 7 +48 <br />
346 Biblegateway.com 55,775 6,025,713 7.13 7.07 7 -35 <br />
347 Uol.com.br 55,698 4,407,400 7.25 7.24 7 +16 <br />
348 Msnbc.com 55,433 2,380,257 7.10 7.43 8 -3 <br />
349 Discuz.net 54,966 35,903,829 7.23 6.62 7 -62 <br />
350 Theregister.co.uk 54,938 2,155,701 7.16 7.56 8 -8 <br />
351 Findlaw.com 54,914 1,377,421 7.17 7.45 8 -41 <br />
352 Motigo.com 54,829 3,860,228 8.02 7.60 6 -59 <br />
353 Ox.ac.uk 54,826 933,942 7.28 8.91 9 -30 <br />
354 Vox.com 54,647 2,252,612 6.82 6.89 7 +239 <br />
355 Nature.com 54,553 1,905,703 7.24 8.91 8 +1 <br />
356 Ibiblio.org 54,375 1,681,299 6.96 7.42 8 -30 <br />
357 Mlb.com 54,300 2,491,692 7.25 7.47 7 -3 <br />
358 Gnolia.com 54,236 7,206,504 6.86 6.96 5 +379 <br />
359 Megaupload.com 54,190 4,194,725 6.85 6.77 6 +115 <br />
360 Skynet.be 53,996 4,067,345 7.24 7.14 7 -36 <br />
361 Smugmug.com 53,716 22,027,591 7.54 7.46 7 +58 <br />
362 Tamu.edu 53,658 2,296,457 7.23 7.71 8 -58 <br />
363 Chron.com 53,575 1,347,889 7.09 7.41 7 +1 <br />
364 Rutgers.edu 53,435 784,494 7.18 8.91 8 -52 <br />
365 Comsenz.com 53,429 39,787,826 7.29 6.67 8 -68 <br />
366 Wa.gov 53,262 1,686,421 7.37 7.70 7 -66 <br />
367 Reference.com 53,201 2,442,373 7.02 7.28 7 +13 <br />
368 Jimdo.com 53,197 950,670 7.03 6.66 7 +293 <br />
369 Theglobeandmail.com 53,069 3,413,820 7.16 7.41 5 -11 <br />
370 Lulu.com 53,029 2,138,281 7.26 7.37 7 -2 <br />
371 Webmasterplan.com 52,990 15,267,661 7.50 6.91 5 -66 <br />
372 Toplist.cz 52,961 24,890,251 7.72 7.02 5 -66 <br />
373 Nydailynews.com 52,926 1,898,508 7.09 7.37 4 +14 <br />
374 Dot.gov 52,708 1,759,321 7.53 7.89 8 -65 <br />
375 Duke.edu 52,638 956,144 7.23 8.91 9 -60 <br />
376 Boingboing.net 52,250 2,403,139 6.95 7.24 8 +13 <br />
377 Lycos.co.uk 51,836 4,287,854 6.82 6.87 7 +50 <br />
378 Webshots.com 51,715 1,640,975 7.01 7.15 7 0 <br />
379 Jalbum.net 51,562 4,168,512 7.48 7.29 8 -31 <br />
380 Mediafire.com 51,528 2,440,616 6.94 6.95 6 +163 <br />
381 Att.com 51,488 997,679 7.44 7.81 8 +7 <br />
382 Prnewswire.com 51,476 1,868,915 7.43 8.24 7 -23 <br />
383 Hotmail.com 51,409 693,703 7.15 7.33 9 +115 <br />
384 8m.com 51,348 633,516 6.79 6.97 7 -9 <br />
385 Usnews.com 51,338 2,088,677 7.17 7.54 8 -14 <br />
386 Hhs.gov 51,328 2,132,779 7.68 8.09 10 -61 <br />
387 Cisco.com 51,287 1,795,945 7.54 8.91 9 -34 <br />
388 Arstechnica.com 51,275 3,171,915 7.07 7.48 8 -9 <br />
389 Funpic.de 51,242 3,033,606 6.93 6.60 4 +110 <br />
390 Merriam-webster.com 51,194 2,107,554 6.80 7.14 8 +7 <br />
391 Fc2web.com 51,013 2,665,920 7.10 6.63 6 -69 <br />
392 Redcross.org 50,826 1,047,765 7.53 7.77 9 +45 <br />
393 Csmonitor.com 50,801 1,104,125 7.07 7.52 5 -17 <br />
394 Accuweather.com 50,787 4,200,998 7.46 7.53 8 -43 <br />
395 Nypost.com 50,724 2,201,055 7.09 7.35 5 +7 <br />
396 Ucsd.edu 50,683 2,034,474 7.18 7.72 8 -52 <br />
397 Oreilly.com 50,506 5,984,335 7.25 8.90 7 -32 <br />
398 Bigmir.net 50,310 21,907,167 7.45 6.95 8 +62 <br />
399 Usc.edu 50,223 1,063,055 7.15 8.90 8 -50 <br />
400 Ebay.co.uk 49,866 3,043,041 7.28 7.13 7 +36 <br />
401 Ne.jp 49,764 969,171 7.18 6.88 5 -73 <br />
402 Mister-wong.de 49,741 10,769,352 7.04 6.74 8 +531 <br />
403 000webhost.com 49,641 1,627,582 6.79 6.42 7 +330 <br />
404 Spurl.net 49,615 7,291,789 6.76 6.77 6 +469 <br />
405 Ebay.de 49,445 4,289,500 7.26 6.86 7 +41 <br />
406 Hud.gov 49,238 1,368,833 7.43 7.70 8 -68 <br />
407 Prweb.com 49,208 2,067,734 7.40 7.54 7 -25 <br />
408 Utoronto.ca 49,201 4,244,617 7.20 8.91 8 -36 <br />
409 Sciencedaily.com 49,163 1,500,494 7.04 7.40 8 +25 <br />
410 Livedoor.com 48,678 16,290,772 7.27 6.82 7 -43 <br />
411 Excite.com 48,654 1,211,698 7.01 7.31 8 -50 <br />
412 Suntimes.com 48,634 3,075,202 7.06 7.31 7 -17 <br />
413 Friendster.com 48,585 3,997,660 6.91 6.99 7 +196 <br />
414 Seattlepi.com 48,367 1,017,335 6.61 6.94 7 +9 <br />
415 Freeserve.co.uk 48,322 389,164 7.03 7.17 7 -65 <br />
416 Blogsome.com 48,303 2,092,189 6.62 6.75 7 +173 <br />
417 Libero.it 48,190 2,244,496 6.88 6.86 7 -19 <br />
418 Mercurynews.com 48,170 1,449,606 7.19 7.56 5 -22 <br />
419 Ancestry.com 48,111 2,632,119 6.77 7.04 7 -33 <br />
420 Cctv.com 48,071 1,723,258 6.97 6.90 9 -47 <br />
421 Excite.co.jp 47,949 4,614,179 7.15 6.76 6 +45 <br />
422 Example.com 47,912 932,675 7.29 7.33 8 +138 <br />
423 Oscommerce.com 47,909 24,535,245 7.83 7.54 8 -66 <br />
424 Zanox.com 47,887 13,639,175 7.43 6.92 6 -10 <br />
425 Proboards.com 47,862 3,470,069 7.38 7.38 6 +36 <br />
426 Freeservers.com 47,766 2,769,357 6.90 7.02 7 -35 <br />
427 Theonion.com 47,763 1,625,772 6.85 7.10 7 +6 <br />
428 Mashable.com 47,676 1,789,369 7.16 7.27 7 +133 <br />
429 Lycos.de 47,584 3,886,607 6.83 6.79 7 +13 <br />
430 Ucdavis.edu 47,450 1,743,229 7.20 7.69 8 -75 <br />
431 Petitiononline.com 47,345 594,036 6.89 7.06 6 +56 <br />
432 Newsweek.com 47,298 1,212,957 7.11 7.44 8 +31 <br />
433 Odn.ne.jp 47,145 1,178,263 7.26 6.82 6 -73 <br />
434 Asu.edu 47,055 6,952,088 7.09 8.90 8 -33 <br />
435 Yahoo.com.cn 46,862 3,013,462 6.89 6.40 8 +335 <br />
436 Slate.com 46,822 2,501,013 6.95 7.32 8 +15 <br />
437 Bebo.com 46,794 2,443,394 7.15 7.13 7 +194 <br />
438 Networksolutions.com 46,769 675,864 7.60 7.58 8 +148 <br />
439 Adobe.co.jp 46,729 1,024,074 8.25 7.81 8 -120 <br />
440 Greenpeace.org 46,701 6,800,431 7.07 7.30 8 -16 <br />
441 Pitt.edu 46,606 601,903 7.08 8.90 8 -49 <br />
442 Msdn.com 46,597 6,456,980 7.26 7.42 8 +27 <br />
443 Friendfeed.com 46,535 6,977,029 7.09 7.16 8 +313 <br />
444 Colorado.edu 46,492 1,535,719 7.12 8.91 8 -44 <br />
445 Hc360.com 46,460 2,571,918 7.12 6.48 7 -30 <br />
446 Vt.edu 46,408 822,939 7.22 7.68 8 -84 <br />
447 Cool.ne.jp 46,404 3,728,420 7.10 6.72 4 -57 <br />
448 Admin.ch 46,396 1,519,159 7.42 7.47 9 -38 <br />
449 Ap.org 46,389 8,088,878 7.18 7.45 8 +18 <br />
450 Usps.com 46,368 1,134,252 7.53 7.72 8 -51 <br />
451 State.ny.us 46,331 953,065 7.37 7.71 8 -66 <br />
452 Orange.fr 46,200 1,659,133 7.17 7.06 7 -68 <br />
453 Nokia.com 46,159 2,810,891 7.25 7.44 5 -4 <br />
454 Lemonde.fr 46,122 2,682,654 6.94 7.16 8 -15 <br />
455 Shareasale.com 46,078 12,341,823 7.36 7.25 5 -85 <br />
456 Theage.com.au 45,747 2,076,868 7.00 7.22 8 -27 <br />
457 Washingtontimes.com 45,713 1,458,235 7.06 7.55 5 -9 <br />
458 Hilton.com 45,685 548,129 7.58 7.80 7 -41 <br />
459 Canalblog.com 45,626 8,454,949 6.90 6.77 5 +19 <br />
460 Nikkei.co.jp 45,371 1,636,278 7.30 7.07 7 +41 <br />
461 Gravatar.com 45,173 4,470,160 7.03 6.99 7 +204 <br />
462 Nikkeibp.co.jp 45,122 1,718,489 7.32 7.17 7 +62 <br />
463 Winzip.com 45,114 611,149 7.64 7.80 8 -89 <br />
464 Co.nr 45,058 1,155,124 6.81 6.83 7 +92 <br />
465 Ama-assn.org 45,022 582,147 7.34 7.69 8 -61 <br />
466 Yahoo.net 44,989 12,347,658 7.52 7.56 9 -58 <br />
467 Worldbank.org 44,969 1,012,370 7.37 7.73 9 -24 <br />
468 Spreadfirefox.com 44,939 5,517,762 7.19 7.28 9 -62 <br />
469 Newsday.com 44,929 9,358,915 7.00 7.38 7 -28 <br />
470 Ubc.ca 44,902 866,946 7.12 7.60 8 0 <br />
471 Tripadvisor.com 44,854 5,772,065 7.48 7.46 8 -3 <br />
472 Gamespot.com 44,704 12,433,472 7.08 7.20 9 +10 <br />
473 Wiley.com 44,695 1,515,079 7.35 7.76 8 +8 <br />
474 Tom.com 44,514 1,949,655 6.85 6.53 8 -108 <br />
475 Cancer.org 44,372 629,724 7.33 7.60 8 +8 <br />
476 Usa.gov 44,333 3,583,833 7.68 8.53 10 -67 <br />
477 Illinois.edu 44,300 1,028,529 6.49 8.88 8 -66 <br />
478 Bls.gov 44,284 1,170,739 7.27 7.64 8 -65 <br />
479 Uci.edu 44,263 1,113,817 7.14 8.90 8 -51 <br />
480 Uspto.gov 44,205 1,085,131 7.34 7.83 9 -60 <br />
481 Mapy.cz 44,186 3,386,383 7.65 7.01 8 -78 <br />
482 Cyberpolice.cn 44,180 9,616,764 7.54 6.61 7 -35 <br />
483 Nedstatbasic.net 44,105 3,252,694 7.59 7.33 8 -114 <br />
484 Arcor.de 44,086 856,494 7.24 6.99 6 +4 <br />
485 Snopes.com 43,820 448,016 6.88 7.16 8 +35 <br />
486 Blogcatalog.com 43,704 7,536,741 6.90 6.83 7 +47 <br />
487 Gmail.com 43,602 477,092 7.03 7.19 9 +134 <br />
488 Indiatimes.com 43,362 1,227,226 7.02 7.29 7 +60 <br />
489 Computerworld.com 43,330 1,922,606 7.25 7.66 5 +3 <br />
490 Freecsstemplates.org 43,298 3,041,844 7.43 7.24 8 +142 <br />
491 Blog.com 43,265 1,540,641 6.58 6.67 6 +247 <br />
492 Dti.ne.jp 43,207 984,863 7.12 6.83 5 -87 <br />
493 Simpy.com 43,184 5,797,656 6.72 6.75 6 +439 <br />
494 Deliciousdays.com 43,107 767,147 7.32 7.17 6 +22 <br />
495 Disclaimer.de 42,756 1,641,912 7.48 6.89 8 -83 <br />
496 Hi5.com 42,740 2,789,616 6.84 6.80 7 +209 <br />
497 Sphinn.com 42,682 938,550 6.19 6.33 6 +462 <br />
498 Hi-ho.ne.jp 42,627 841,630 7.11 6.73 6 -63 <br />
499 Yomiuri.co.jp 42,625 1,207,699 7.15 7.01 8 -44 <br />
500 Ted.com 42,592 937,298 6.99 7.24 8 +119Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com31tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-76789739274296675212010-03-11T09:21:00.000-08:002010-03-11T09:21:47.068-08:00some importent websites for the newcomer to internet bu sunil yadav bewalhiiiiiiiiiiii<br />
<br />
i am sunil.My contact no is 9729080566.<br />
<br />
here are some websites for the inernet services.<br />
<b><i><br />
For Searching </i></b><br />
<b>WWW.google.com</b>,<b>www.yahoo.com</b>,www.rediff.com,www.in.com<br />
<br />
For e-Mails:- www.gmail.com,www.ymail.com,redif.com<br />
<br />
For social Networking www.orkut.com,www.facebook.com,www.twitter.com,www.myspace.comSunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-9955339630829991512010-03-11T09:12:00.000-08:002013-06-14T20:47:49.696-07:00sunil yadav bewal my school<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
hi<br />
<br />
<br />
i am sunil yadav from bewal village.<br />
<br />
thanks contact me on 9729080566,<br />
<br />
Email id sunilyadav0201@gmail.com</div>
Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-81859506215682133602010-01-13T17:06:00.001-08:002010-01-13T17:06:30.548-08:00BewalHi i am a resident of bewal village.<br />
Bewal is a good living place.<br />
Bewal is good in litracy and have good schools and facility for transport to other schools in mahendergarh. <br />
Sunil yadavSunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-43433611611203202812010-01-10T18:30:00.000-08:002010-01-13T17:31:25.934-08:00BewalBEWAL IS A VERY GOOD VILLAGE AS IT IS MY NATIVE LAND .<br />
I LOVE MY VILLAGE.<br />
Bewal,bewal,bewal,bewal,bewal.BEWAL,BEWAL,BEWAL.<br />
Bewal,<br />
bewal<br />
bewal.<br />
SunilSunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-596503409692991228.post-85244031173473477382010-01-10T18:23:00.000-08:002013-06-14T20:48:57.753-07:00Bewal MY Village<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<strong>hiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii</strong><br />
<br />
I AM SUNIL YADAV .<br />
<br />
MY VILLAGE IS SITUATED AT THE SOUTHERN OF HARYANA.<br />
<br />
MY DISTRICT IS MAHENDER GARH.<br />
<br />
FOR INFOMATION YOU CAN CALL ME AT 9654114667.<br />
<br />
MY E MAIL; ID IS sunilyadav0201@gmail.com.</div>
Sunil Bewalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06212244253052273948noreply@blogger.com0